Occupations
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Numbers employed in
Percentage of number employed in July 1914
July 1914
Nov. 1918
July 1920
Nov. 1918
July 1920
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
thou-
thou-
thou-
thou-
thou-
thou-
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
Building
53
I
56
7'9
52
2
106-0
790-0
98-1
240-0
Mines and quarries
151
2
i"9
3-1
169
2
119-0
155-0
II2-O
92-7
Metal industries
193
45
343
US
287
83
178-0
256-0
149-0
183-0
Chemical industries
H
ii
20
2 4
16
22
143-0
216-0
115-0
199-0
Textile industries
123
215
1 08
203
109
208
88-1
94-4
88-4
96-6
Clothing industries
42
141
41
129
37
136
98-6
9i-5
87-8
96-8
Food, drink and tobacco industries
38
49
43
55
32
59
II2-O
III-O
83-5
I2O-O
Paper and printing industries.
41
46
3i
43
34
55
74-6
95-o
82-0
II9-0
Wood industries
33
10
38
24
37
17
115-0
232-0
113-0
174-0
Other industries (incl. gas, water and \ electricity under local authorities /
48
24
45
39
45
35
92-2
162-0
92-6
147-0
Government establishments.dockyards, \ arsenals, national factories, etc.
3
22
9-2
5-4
2
733-0
180-0
Transport
79
2-2
91
ii
87
3-5
115-0
505-0
IIO-O
157-0
Finance and commerce ....
248
8 4
199
218
182
178
80-3
260-0
73-5
2I2-O
Miscellaneous professions, hotels, the- }
atres, hospitals, municipal services \
35-9
24-5
4 6
37-i
37
3-4
128-0
151-0
103-0
124-0
(except tramway, gas, water, etc.) J
Civil service
21
IO-I
IS
30
10
ii
71-4
300-0
49-2
IIO-O
Total
I.I23
665
1.277
948
I.I39
842
114-0
143-0
IOI-O
I27-0
vacant places to which the elder boys could be promoted and the issue of war contracts was beginning to have its effect upon the demand for labour of all kinds. The demand for girls for war work came rather later, as the number ( of boys transferred to work done hitherto by men increased, and as the manufacture of munitions of war of all kinds was developed upon a basis of routine processes upon many of which boys could be employed in very large numbers. The majority of the boys who were attracted to war work were employed upon such routine processes, and at the same time the proportion of boys to the total number of boys and men employed increased. This followed partly from the general extension of routine processes and partly from the promotion of boys to do the work of men. The girls who were drawn into war work also took part in the performance of routine processes, and, as indicated already, they entered such occupations as that of clerks in banks, insurance offices and com- mercial houses from which men and boys had been drawn away.
In so far as boys and girls took the places of men, they obtained opportunities of doing work of a higher grade than would normally have fallen to them at such an early age. Any advantages which might have followed from such causes were, however, more than counterbalanced by the general character of the work of producing munitions of war. As the war proceeded, routine processes were multiplied. Work was standardized so as to secure a large and certain output. With the increasing shortage of skilled workmen it became increasingly necessary to limit the demand for them, and this alone provided a strong inducement to extend routine work. At the same time the rates of wages paid to juvenile workers, espe- cially to boys, steadily increased; and by 1917 boys of 15, who before the war might have been earning from los. to 155. a week, were earn- ing as much as 2 and 3 a week upon working automatic machines. The educational value of such work was negligible. The boys expected to join the army upon reaching the age of 18; wages were constantly rising and the demand for boy labour was very strong. Many boys found themselves, in the absence of their fathers and elder brothers with the forces, the principal wage-earners of their families. In such circumstances it was not in human nature that they should care about the effect of the work which they were doing upon their prospects as adult workmen in industry. Boys con- stantly changed their place of employment in pursuit of higher wages; the strain of the work was severe, and constraint upon their actions outside the factory was generally lacking. While, therefore, the work done by boys and girls in the munitions factories was of essential value, it did not provide a favourable environment in which to pass the years leading to manhood and womanhood.
During the war the juvenile employment committees took such action as was possible to meet the exceptional conditions. They, in common with boys' clubs and other agencies interested, were, how- ever, much handicapped by the service of many of their members and officials with the forces or upon war work of other kinds. Committees were not formed in new centres during the war and the committees already in existence were largely occupied with the conditions in which juvenile workers were employed in war industries. It was found necessary to draw, through the employment exchanges, con- siderable numbers of boys and girls from a distance to work at such centres as Woolwich Arsenal and in the shipyards on the Clyde. The juvenile employment committees endeavoured to ensure that the arrangements both inside and outside the workshops were satis- factory. They encouraged the appointment by the employers of " Welfare Supervisors " and interested themselves in the arrange- ments made at the hostels in which juvenile workers were lodged.
They collected information as to the effects upon juvenile workers of the exceptional working conditions (long hours, night work, the effects of monotonous employment, etc.), and in a number of cases they were able to secure important reforms in the arrangements made. Responsibility for the welfare of munitions workers rested during the war with the Ministry of Munitions, and much was done to obtain proper industrial conditions for juvenile workers.
In addition to the powers which they possess under the Factory Acts in regard to health, sanitation, safety, the hours of work of women and young persons, etc., the Home Office, under the Police, Factories, etc. (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1916, may by order, when the circumstances of the work warrant it, require employers to make reasonable provision for the welfare of the workers in regard to such matters as supply of protective clothing, canteen arrange- ments, supervision, etc.
During the war careful consideration was given to the measures for dealing with juvenile employment which would be necessary upon the return of peace. The juvenile employment committees undertook extensive inquiries in 1916 and 1917 into the conditions of juvenile employment, the changes which the war had produced and the situation which would probably arise at the end of the war. In the report of a departmental committee on juvenile education in relation to employment after the war, and in a report upon "Juvenile Employment, During the War and After," issued in 1918 by the Ministry of Reconstruction, the evidence so obtained was examined. Both reports recommended an extension of juvenile employment committees and the opening during the demobilization period of " Unemployment Centres " at which boys and girls could attend to receive continued education with a maintenance grant during unemployment. The report of 1918 further recommended a number of measures for avoiding the sudden discharge of large numbers of juvenile workers at the end of the war, and for avoiding juvenile unemployment by the general and immediate use of the powers given by the Education Act, 1918, to require extended compulsory education. The reduction of normal working hours for juvenile workers in industry was also recommended.
With the beginning of the demobilization period at the end of 1918 action was taken in accordance with several of these recom- mendations. Juvenile employment committees of a permanent or temporary character were set up in districts in which it seemed probable that any extensive dislocation of juvenile employment would occur. So far as possible the discharge of juvenile workers was carried out gradually by arrangement with employers. Employers were asked to give juvenile employment committees advance notice of pending discharges of juveniles, in order that, so far as possible, the committees could gauge the extent of unemployment amongst juveniles and make alternative provision for those juveniles for whom other employment could not immediately be found.
Educational Centres for Unemployed, Early in 1919 arrangements were made by the education departments with the local education authorities for special centres to be opened at which unemployed boys and girls could attend, usually for five days a week. The objects with which these centres were established were to occupy the time of unemployed boys and girls by mental and physical instruc- tion and to prevent them from wasting their days in the streets. Means to ensure attendance was provided by the out-of-work donation scheme, under which unemployed boys and girls were entitled to substantial payments (at the outset 143. 6d. for boys and' I2s. 6d. for girls) each week during unemployment. Educational centres were opened in most areas in which it was likely that a
