attending the losses of the " Falaba " and the " Lusitania." In 1916 he was created a viscount.
MERTHYR, WILLIAM THOMAS LEWIS, 1st BARON (1837-
1014), British engineer, was born at Merthyr-Tydvil Aug. 5 1837. He was trained as a civil engineer and in 1864 married Anne Rees, daughter of a S. Wales coal-owner. Thenceforth he was a large employer of labour in the S. Wales collieries and effected many improvements both in the machinery of the mines and the condition of the miners. He was the originator of the sliding scale of wages introduced into the district in 1873, and
also of a miners' provident fund. He was called in to settle the
serious Taff Vale railway strike in 1900, and was an active work-
er for industrial peace. He was a member of several Royal
Commissions, was knighted in 1885, created a baronet in 1896
and raised to the peerage in 1911. He was made K.C.V.O. in
1907 and G.C.V.O. in 1912. He died at Newbury, Berks., Aug.
27 1914.
MESDAG, HENDRIK WILLEM (1831-1915), Dutch marine
painter, was born at Groningen Feb. 23 1831. He adopted a
business career, entering the family banking firm of Mesdag, but
about 1866 he came under the influence of Josef Israels, with the
result that he took up the study of art. His sea pieces became
famous, and earned him the gold medal of the Paris Salon,
among them being " Effet du soir a Scheveningen " (1872);
" Apres 1'Orage " (1895); " Rentree des bateaux de peche"
(1900) and " Une soiree sur la plage de Scheveningen " (1911). He also made a fine collection of pictures and objets d'art, which he presented to the nation, and they are housed in the Mesdag museum at The Hague. He died at The Hague July 7 1915.
MESOPOTAMIA (see 18.179). In the classical sense " Mesopotamia " is the country from Mosul and Tikrit on the Tigris to the borders of Syria. In the earlier article it was this area which was described under the heading of MESOPOTAMIA. It was then said concerning the name itself that " in modern times it is often used for the whole Euphrates country. That would pro- vide a useful name for an important geographical unit, but it is too misleading." The point has, however, now been settled, for when the Indian Expeditionary Force landed at the head of the Persian Gulf in 1914 the public decided that it was Meso- potamia which was in question, and the name is now applied, under the sanction of international treaties, to the country stretching from the head of the Persian Gulf as far up the Tigris and the Euphrates as the direct responsibilities of the British Government extend. The area coincides, except for a slight variation in the northern boundary, with the Turkish vilayets of Basra, Bagdad and Mosul. The Arab name for what is now called Mesopotamia is Iraq a term (sometimes Englished as Irak) formerly covering only the alluvial plain from about Tikrit southwards, but now commonly and even officially used for the whole area governed from Bagdad.
The boundaries of Mesopotamia are: N., a line running roughly E. and W. through a point on the Tigris rather nearer to Jeziret ibn "Umar than to Mosul. S., territory of the Sheikh of Mohammerah (Persia), the Persian Gulf and Kuwait. E., the Turco-Persian fron- tier (this boundary was the subject of a Turco-Persian commission assisted by British and Russian representatives in 1913-14; the commission completed its labours just before the war began, but its report was never ratified). W., the Arabian and Syrian deserts.
Southern Mesopotamia consists of an alluvial plain which stretches from the Persian Gulf a distance of some 400 m. to the north. This plain passes into rolling downs S. of Mosul; and beyond Mosul, to the N. and E., it rises into the limestone mountains of Kurdistan, where some peaks attain a height of 1 1 ,000 feet.
Climate. The climate of Mesopotamia is continental sub-tropi- cal. The main features are large daily and annual ranges of tempera- ture, lack of moisture and scanty rainfall. The annual rainfall totals recorded at the three largest towns are:
| Place | Number of years | Annual average rainfall in inches |
|---|---|---|
| Basra | 18 | 6-68 |
| Bagdad | 29 | 6-64 |
| Mosul | 4 | 16-71 |
All the rain falls during the winter months; there is a long rainless summer lasting from April or May to Oct. or November. The tem- perature in summer is as high as that of any place in the world; I2OF. in the shade is not uncommon at Bagdad and Basra and in 1921 i28F in the shade was recorded at Basra. On the other hand severe frost is often experienced in winter. At Mosul temperatures of over 30 F. below freezing-point have been registered, and the absolute minimum on record runs from oF. at Mosul to 19 F. at Bagdad and 24 F. at Basra. The heat of summer is tempered by the excessive dryness of the atmosphere and by the prevailing wind, the shamal, which blows from the north. (A. T. W.)
Medical Conditions. The Tigris and Euphrates and the Shatt al Arab river formed by their junction overflow their banks in the spring and early summer months owing to the water derived from the melting snows of the mountains near their source. As a result of this, the lower portions of Mesopotamia contain large marshy districts near the banks of these great rivers which have a great influence on the hygienic conditions prevailing. The hot months of the year are from May to Oct., the hottest being July and Aug., but fortunately even in these months the nights are relatively cool. Just as in the case of the Persian Gulf, the intense heat is rendered much more dangerous to human life by the high relative humidity of the atmosphere caused by the moisture derived from the rivers and marshy districts adjoining.
The dangers from heat exposure experienced in the Persian Gulf exist equally in the lower parts of Mesopotamia, such as Basra, Mohammerah, Gurna and as far up the Tigris as Ezra's Tomb, and similarly the lower reaches of the Euphrates up to Nasiriya are subject to like climatic conditions. In these districts, owing to the ample opportunities provided by the marshy areas, mosquitoes flour- ish abundantly and the malaria-carrying anopheles varieties are prevalent. Malaria is consequently a disease which is very common, and it is usually of the type known as benign tertian. In these regions the greatest care is necessary to avoid infection and the con- stant use of mosquito-nets is essential. The taking of quinine, 5 gr. per diem, has been recommended as a prophylactic measure during the months when mosquitoes abound, but the mosquito-net is the surer safeguard. The other parts of Mesopotamia are subject to equally high temperatures but the air is drier and the dangers from heat-stroke are much less. Malaria is less prevalent, though it occurs in the neighbourhood of the marshy districts.
Dysentery is prevalent throughout Mesopotamia. The form of dysentery caused by the Amoeba dysenteries occurs all the year round and it may be complicated by inflammation of the liver and liver abscess. The other variety of dysentery known as bacillary dysentery is common and is apt to occur in epidemic form, especially in the autumn months. Both varieties of dysentery are conveyed by impure water, so that the drinking of water which has not been boiled or chlorinated, or the eating of salads, etc., which may have been washed in contaminated water, must be carefully avoided.
Enteric fever, which includes typhoid fever and the fevers of paratyphoid A and B organisms, is a water-borne disease and is common in Mesopotamia. A valuable protection against them is afforded by prophylactic inoculation with T.A.B. vaccine, which protects against the three enteric-group fevers. Every resident should obtain the valuable protection afforded by a yearly inocula- tion with T.A.B. vaccine.
Cholera occurs in Mesopotamia and is a wate.r-borne disease. It is frequently also introduced into Basra by infected persons arriving on ships from India and elsewhere. Prophylactic inocula- tion against cholera has been recommended, but the immunity con- ferred is of short duration, only lasting a few months, and it is not recommended as a protection for white residents unless a serious epidemic is prevalent.
" Carriers " of disease are persons who are apparently in good health but whose excreta contain the organisms of an infectious disease. " Carriers " of the water-borne diseases above mentioned, dysentery, enteric-group disease and cholera, are frequently found in tropical countries; and not uncommonly cooks and servants or persons who handle food and drink, when "carriers" of these diseases, cause infection to others. Such persons suspected of being " car- riers " of disease should be submitted to a bacteriological examina- tion which would detect the presence of the disease-producing organ- isms in their excreta.
Sand-fly fever is exceedingly common ; it is an acute and painful fever of about three days' duration which is caused by the bite of an infected sand-fly (PUebotomus Papatasii). This pest is so small that it can readily find its way through an ordinary mosquito-net, and in order to protect oneself against sand-fly fever it is necessary to sleep under a net of sufficiently fine mesh to prevent its entry. Sand-fly nets are commonly used in the tropics and are preferable to ordinary mosquito-nets, since they keep out both sand-flies and mosquitoes. Insect repellants, such as oil of citronella, eucalyptus, paraffin, vermijelli, turpentine, etc., may be smeared on exposed parts of the body to prevent the bites of sand-flies and mosquitoes at times when one is not protected by a net.
Plague is not common in Mesopotamia, though in former years serious epidemics have been recorded. At the present day plague is generally introduced from India by cargoes landed in the Mesopotamian ports, and sporadic cases frequently occur in Basra amongst seafaring people. The disease is spread by rats, which are readily infected with the Bacillus pestis, the organism being carried from the rat to man by the flea. Prophylactic inoculation is of value
