the Senussites to continue the conflict (see SENUSSI). At the
beginning of 1914 the Italians held in Cyrenaica only a strip
along the coast. The Senussites were masters in the interior,
and thus in a position powerfully to influence the tribes of Tri-
politania. Many of the Fezzani were of the Senussi fraternity.
Such was the position when in Aug. 1914 the World War began, Italy however at that time remaining neutral. Towards the end of the next month (Sept. 1914) the Fezzani instigated by emissaries from the Senussi Sheikh suddenly rose in revolt and attacked several small garrisons between Murzuk and the coast. By the end of Nov. the rising had assumed large propor- tion. The Italian Government then ordered that Fezzan should be evacuated, and Col. Miani and his troops fought their way back to the coast. As soon as the Italians had left Murzuk Mahommed el 'Abid, a brother of the Senussi Sheikh, took over control there and declared himself governor of Fezzan. Miani's withdrawal from Fezzan left the Italian garrison at Ghat 600 m. from the coast isolated, while the garrison of Ghadames, farther N., was also in danger. Both places adjoined the French frontier, and at the invitation of the French Government the garrison of Ghat marched across the desert to Fort Flattere (a distance of 200 m.), while that of Ghadames withdrew into the Tunisian Sahara. General Tassoni, then governor of Tripoli, whose forces were increased by 6,500 fresh troops, directed the reoccupation of both oases. After hard fighting Col. Giannini retook Ghat on Feb. 18 1915, and shortly afterwards Ghadames was also re- garrisoned. But on the eastern side of Tripoli fortune went against the Italians. In an engagement with the rebels between Sokna and the coast on April 29, the Libyan auxiliaries of the Italians went over to the enemy on the field of battle, and the Italian and Eritrean troops were only saved from complete dis- aster by a skilful retreat to the coast. Turkish, German and Senussi propaganda was very active throughout Tripolitania, and the Italian declaration of war upon Austria (May 23 1913) was the signal for a general rising. In these circumstances the Italians decided to abandon the interior. The withdrawal of the garrisons was not effected without serious losses. In June the troops at 'Aziziya, 40 m. S. of Tripoli city, closely besieged and having exhausted their food, broke out and attempted to reach the coast. Nearly all were killed. The last place evacuated was Ghadames, the garrison on July 19 again crossing into Tunisia. The only places retained by the Italians were the seaports of Tripoli and Horns (Khoms). In this month (on July 15) Gen. Ameglio, governor of Cyrenaica, was also named governor of Tripoli, for the better conduct of the defensive operations. The hostile forces which gathered in the neighbourhood of Tripoli city in the summer of 1915 were beaten back.
The success of the revolt induced the Turkish and German agents in the country, of whom there were a considerable number, to endeavour to bring about revolts in Tunisia and Algeria also. In Algeria they failed, but in the Tunisian Sahara some tribes, aided by forces from Fezzan led by Turkish officers, attacked the French outposts. Sharp fighting in Sept. and Oct. 1915 ended in the reestablishment of order along the frontier by the French forces. At this time, however, the chief effort of the Turks was in Cyrenaica, where Sidi Ahmad, the Senussi Sheikh, was induced to invade Egypt. The only development of note in Tripolitania until after the defeat of Sidi Ahmad by the British was the reoccupation of the seaport of Zuara by the Italians in Aug. 1916.
In Sept. 1916 Suleiman el Baruni reappeared. He landed at Misurata on the 251)1 of that month accompanied by German and Turkish officers and in possession of a firman from the Sultan, appointing him governor-general of the vilayets of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers. 1 He was joined at Misurata by Ramadhan el Shtewi, the most powerful local chieftain, an ambitious man who proved a doubtful ally and whose real aim was independence of all other parties. He now, however, helped El Baruni, as did also Nuri Bey. Together they organized a fighting force of 6,000 to 7,000 men, with which all through 1917 El Baruni harassed the Italians, whom he boasted he would drive into the sea.
1 To soothe his wounded feelings Sidi Ahmad was in Nov. 1916 given by the Turks the title of " Viceroy of Africa."
Though he was defeated in four separate engagements the Italian; could not follow up their successes. While this fighting was going on Sidi Ahmad's expulsion from Egypt weakened Senussi pres- tige in Tripoli, and in the summer of 1917 the pro-Turkish part} in Fezzan expelled Sidi Ahmad's brother Mahommed el 'Abid from Fezzan.
Nothwithstanding the failure of El Baruni's efforts against Tripoli city, the close of 1917 saw the supporters of Turkish designs apparently masters of the country. In reality, the Arab and Berber chiefs were split into factions. El Shtewi had estab- lished a so-called republic of Tripoli and ruled at Misurata; the Senussi were divided among themselves, and one party of them, under Sidi Idris, had, as early as April 1917, come to terms with the Italians and British. The impossibility of getting the tribes to act together caused Nuri Bey to leave Tripolitania early in 1918. He was succeeded by Ishaq Pasha, who proved a harsh and unpopular commander. The Turkish Government, however; still believed that it would be possible to expel the Italians from Tripoli, and they sent thither Prince Osman Fuad (a grandson) of Sultan Murad V.). The prince, who arrived at Misurata by submarine in April 1918, tried to compose the quarrels among the tribes, but did not succeed. The tribes were as jealous one of another as were the Highland clans in the " 45," and powerful chiefs exercised independent authority, El Baruni and El Shtewi being the most important. They combined on occasion, and on' occasion quarrelled. Such was the position when the World War ended in Nov. 1918.
The task of pacifying the country and restoring Italian authority was more difficult in Tripoli than in Cyrenaica. Sidi Ahmad had fled and Sidi Idris having consolidated his authority over the Senussi fraternity, it was possible to make with him air arrangement which bound the tribes of Cyrenaica. In Tripoli there were a dozen or more chieftains with whom to deal, and the Italians were not prepared to undertake extensive military opera- tions. They extended their direct authority along the coast and entered into negotiations with El Baruni and the chiefs of otheri tribes. The result was seen in the issue of a royal decree in June 1919 in which natives of Tripoli were given " complete local citizenship," and in the creation of an elective assembly to deal with legislation and direct taxation. The immediately effective part of the decree was that the country should be governed as far as possible through native chiefs, to whom were attached political officers. El Shtewi was the last chief to agree to this arrangement; he became mutcssarif of Misurata. As token of ! reestablished amity the Italian flag was rehoisted at the ksar 1 of 'Aziziya on June 12 1919. InAug.Sig. Vittorio Menzinger was | appointed governor of Tripoli to carry out the new policy of! ruling through a local Parliament, but the chiefs cared little for such an assembly, being more concerned in consolidating their own authority. El Shtewi, particularly, gave much trouble, and in the first half of 1920 he seized and detained for weeks the com- mander of the troops at Horns and other Italian officers and men. He aroused the hostility of Ahmad Murad, the chief of the Tarhuna tribe, and in the fighting which followed the Italians did not interfere. A new governor, Sig. Luigi Mercatelli, was sent out in July 1920, and gradually the situation improved. The complete accord reached in Cyrenaica with the Senussi (Nov. 1920) had a tranquillizing effect. As marking the period of calm which then prevailed, the young Crown Prince Humbert in Sept. 1921 visited Tripoli and Bengazi, receiving assurances of loyalty from many chiefs.
In Sept. 1919 an agreement was reached with France rectifying the Tripolitan-Tunisian frontier, which was made to sweep in a semi-circle from the coast, so as to leave to Tripoli the direct j routes between Ghat, Ghadames and Tunis. Italy also obtained : economic concessions in Tunisia and an agreement as to a com- mon railway policy (see AFRICA: History).
Economic Conditions, etc. The number of inhabitants is unknown; for Tripolitania and Cyrenaica combined it may reach 4,000,000. Tripoli city had (1920) a pop. of about 73,000, and Bengazi 35,000. Europeans, mainly Italians and Maltese, num- ber some 10,000. Most of the country is desert and there are no
