of new methods of treatment. He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted students from all parts of Europe.
The following are his principal works:—Normen für die Ablösung grosser Gliedmassen, Berlin, 1812; Rhinoplastik, 1818; Neue Beitrage zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen, 1821; Die epidemisch-kontagiöse Augenblennorrhöe Ægyptens in den europaischen Befreiungsheeren, 1824; Jahresberichte über das klinisch-chirurgisch-augenarztliche Institut der Universität zu Berlin, 1817-34. He also edited, along with Ph. von Walther, the Journal für Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde.
GRÄFRATH, a town of Rhenish Prussia, government district of Düsseldorf, circle of Solingen, situated on the small river Itter, 14 miles E. of Düsseldorf. It has iron foundries, and manufactures of steel wares, chemicals, cotton, and ribbons. The population in 1875 was 5604.
GRAGNANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Naples and circle of Castellamare, about 21/2 miles E. of Castellamare. It is the seat of a bishop and has a collegiate church, manufactures cloth and maccaroni, and exports an excellent red wine which is well known at Naples. In earlier times it was surrounded with walls and defended by a castle. Population (1871) of town 7321, of commune 12,278.
GRAHAM, Sir James George Robert, Bart. (1792-1861), a well-known British statesman, was born at Naworth,
Cumberland, 1st June 1792. From Westminster school he
duly passed to Queen's College, Cambridge; and shortly
after quitting the university, while making the "grand tour"
abroad, he became private secretary to the British minister
in Sicily, in which capacity he not only acquired much useful experience but also rendered some important services.
Shortly after his return to England he, in 1818, after a
contest of extraordinary keenness, was returned to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig interest; but he
was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he succeeded
to the baronetcy on his father's death; and in 1826 he
again entered parliament as representative for Carlisle. In
the same year he published a pamphlet entitled Corn and Currency, which brought him into considerable prominence
in the political world as a man of advanced Liberal opinions;
and having been returned in 1830 for the county of Cumberland, he became one of the most energetic advocates in
parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of
the admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to
1837 he sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland; but dissensions on the Irish Church question led
to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately
to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his
former constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for
Pembroke, and in 1841 for Dorchester. In the latter year
he took office under Sir Robert Peel as secretary of state
for the home department, and this post he retained until
1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium,
in Scotland at least, by his unconciliating policy on the
church question prior to the "disruption " of 1843; and in
1844 the detention and opening of letters at the post-office
by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation, which
was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852
he was out of office; but in the latter year he joined Lord
Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of the admiralty, in which
capacity he acted also for a short time in the Palmerston
ministry of 1855, until the appointment of a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war put
him upon his defence, and ultimately led to his withdrawal
from official life. He continued, however, as a private
member to exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion until his death, which occurred at Netherby, Cumberland, 26th October 1861.
GRAHAM, Thomas (1804-1869), born at Glasgow on
the 21st of December 1804, was the son of a merchant of
that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow,
and graduated in 1824. At this time the chair of chemistry
was held by Dr Thomas Thomson, whose researches bearing on the atomic theory cannot fail to have had much
influence in turning Graham's thoughts to the study of
molecular physics to which he so patiently devoted his life.
The beginning of his career appears to have been much
embittered by his father's opposition, who wished him to
become a minister of the Established Church. His own
views, however, prevailed, and he worked for two years in
the laboratory of Dr Hope of Edinburgh before returning
to Glasgow, where he taught mathematics, and subsequently
chemistry, until the year 1829, when he was appointed
lecturer in the Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded
Dr Ure as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian Institution, and, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was
transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College,
London. He presided over the chemical section of the
British Association at the Birmingham meeting in 1839,
and in 1841 w:is chosen as the first president of the Chemical Society of London. He resigned his professorship on
being appointed to succeed Sir John Herschel as Master of
the Mint, a post he held until his death in September 1869.
This appointment was doubtless offered to him by Government in recognition of his scientific services, but the
onerous duties of the important office severely tried his
energies; and it is unfortunate that, in quitting a purely
scientific career, he should have been subjected to the cares
of official life for which he was by temperament singularly
unfit. The researches, however, which he conducted
between 1861 and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in
which he engaged. Graham was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1837, a corresponding member of the
Institute of France iu 1847, and doctor of civil law in
1855. The presidency of the Royal Society was offered
him towards the close of his life, but his failing health
caused him to shrink from accepting the honour.
The persistency with which he traced and developed the laws of atomic motion was remarkable. It is interesting therefore to remember that his future work must have been indicated in no small measure by the researches of the illustrious Black, who, at the beginning of the century, rejected the definitions of chemistry proposed by Stahl, Boerhaave, and Fourcroy, and lectured " on the effects produced by heat and mixture in all bodies or mixtures of bodies natural or artificial." -Graham communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded in Transactions, but his first published paper, " On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids," appeared in the Annals of Philosophy for 1826, and is of special interest, as in it he speaks of the liquefaction of gases in much the same terms as those employed in the last paper he wrote. The subject with which his name will always be most prominently associated is the molecular mobility of gases. Priestley observed in 1799 that hydrogen escaped from a fissured glass jar in exchange for external air which " had nothing inflammable in it," and Dalton proved in 1806 that gases confined in glass phials, connected by glass tubes, intermix even against the action of gravity. Graham in his first paper on this subject (1829) thus summarizes the knowledge experiment had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases. " Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting speculations, the experimental information we possess on the subject amounts to little more than the well-established fact that gases of a different nature, when brought into contact, do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they spontaneously diffuse
