H U G H U G 337 him an infringement of the rights of his church or diocese. But with all his bluff firmness Hugh had a calm judgment and a ready tact, which almost invariably left him a better friend than before of those whom he opposed ; and the astute Henry, the impetuous Richard, and the cunning John, so different in other points, agreed in respecting the bishop of Lincoln. St Hugh s manners were a little apt to be boisterous at times, and his early monastic discipline had left him rigid and harsh ; but, though an ascetic to himself, "so that his whole life was a continued martyr dom," he was distinguished by a broad kindliness to others, so that even the Jews of Lincoln wept at his funeral. He had great skill in taming birds, and for some years had a pet swan, which occupies a prominent place in all histories and representations of the saint. In 1200 Bishop Hugh revisited his native country and his first convents, and on the return journey was seized with an illness, of which he died at London, on November 16, 1200. Twenty years later he was canonized. The chief life of St Hugh is the Magna Vita S. Hucjonis (MS. in the Bodleian Library), written by Adam, the saint s private chaplain, of which a number of abridgments have been made at various dates. A Metrical Life of St Hugh of Avalon is preserved in two MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library. Both these Lives have been edited by the Rev. J. E. Diniock. The best modern source for information as to St Hugh and his time is Canon Perry s Life of St Hugh of Avalon, &c., 1879. HUGH OP Sx CHER, Hugo (Ugo) de S. Caro or Carensis (a 1200-1263), a learned compiler of the 13th century, was born at St Cher, a suburb of Vienne, Dauphine", about the year 1200, became a student of theology and canon law in Paris, and in 1224 entered the Dominican cloister of St Jacob there (whence he is sometimes designated as Hugo de S. Jacobo). After having taught theology for upwards of twenty years, in the course of which his learn ing was frequently appealed to by tkose in authority for the solution of difficult questions, he was in 1245 created cardinal of St Sabina by Pope Innocent IV He died at Orvieto in 1263. His principal works are Corrcctorium Biblice, a revised text of the Vulgate, prepared about 1236, hitherto unprinted, but forming the basis of the Corrcctorium Biblice Sorbonicum ; Postilla in universa Bibliajuxta quadruplicem sensum, first printed in 1487 (Basel) and often since, as for example at Cologne in 1621 (8 vols. fol.) ; Specu lum Ecclcsice, a manual for the priesthood (ed. prin., Lyons, 1554); and Sacrorum Bibliorum Concordant ice, in the preparation of which he was assisted by the members of the community to which he belonged, hence it is somotiines known as Concordantwe S. Jacobi (Lyons, 1540; Basel, 1543). See Hist. Litt. de la France, vol. xix. HUGH OF ST VICTOR, Hugo a S. Victore, sometimes also known as Hugh of Paris (c. 1097-1141), was born, probably in the neighbourhood of Ypres, about 1097, and is known to have received his early education in the cloister of Hamersleben near Halberstadt ; in 1115 he removed for the further advancement of his studies to the abbey of St Victor, which had recently been founded by William of Champeaux, the preceptor of Abelard, in the neighbour hood of Paris. There the remainder of his life was spent in teaching or in studious retirement. He died in 1141. The works of Hugh of St Victor, who was the intimate friend of St Bernard, share all the learning, acuteness, and mysticism of the theological school which then sought to neutralize the opinions and the influence of Abelard. Of chief importance are Institutioncs Bfonasticoe, including the treatises De area moral/ , De area mystica, and De vanitate mundi ; De Sacramcntis Fidei, on the mysteries of the faith, and thus a complete exposition of Catholic theology; and DC Eruditions Didascalica, in six books, which earned for its compiler the title _of magister or didascalus. It forms a sort of encyclopedia of the sciences as then understood, viewed of course merely in their subordination to theology. In his treatment of Biblical introduc tion, the sharpness with which he separates the apocryphal from the canonical books has been noticed ; but in doing so it is important also to recollect that he seems to place on a par with the New Testament the canons, the decretals, and the writings of the fathers. An Augustinian in spirit and in language, so as to deserve the titles Alter Augustinus and Lingua Augustini, by which he is frequently designated, Hugo was still more eminently the disciple of Anselm and Abelard ; he, however, had a strongly marked individuality of his own, which appears in his somewhat fully elaborated theory of knowing and being. All the know- able he assigns to one or other of three spheres, that of intelli gence, that of science, and that of logic. That ot intelligence embraces both theory and practice. Under theory fall to be classed theology, mathematics (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy), and physics ; practice is equivalent to ethics. Science has to do with the practical arts and industries, while logic embraces grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic. In correspondence to the trichotomous division of man, as made up of body, soul, and spirit, he speaks of a threefold eye. that of the body, that of reason, and that of contem plation. The last of these, by which God is discerned, has been. totally destroyed by sin ; the second has been much impaired. Faith now takes the place of contemplation ; but by oratio and operatic it can attain to real convictions and genuine love. The doctrine of the Trinity he illustrates by the analogy of the human personality as spirit, wisdom, and love. The collected works have been printed at Paris in 1528, at Venice in 1588, at Mainz and Cologne in 1617, and at Rouen in 1648. They occupy three volumes (175-177) in Migne s Patrolocjice Cursus Completes. See Hist. Litt. de la France, vol. xii. ; Liebner, H. v. S. Victor, (1832) ; Gorres, Die christliche Mystik ; and other works bearing on this general subject. HUGUENOTS, THE. The word Huguenot first appears in France about the middle of the 16th century, and there is historical proof that it was imported from Geneva, where it had existed for some time as a political nickname in a form which connects it directly with the German-Swiss Eidyenosseu, oath-comrades, confederates. In France it was used as a term of reproach for those who aimed at a reform of religion according to the pattern dis played by Calvin in his famous Institutio Christiana Religionis. The name attached itself to the He formers when, having shaken off all connexion with Lutheranism, they were beginning to organize themselves both as a church and as a political body. The Lutheran ideas, which had early come into northern France by way of Metz and Meaux, had for a short time seemed likely to prevail at the court of Francis I., where the king s love of culture welcomed what ever came from the land of the learned; the genius of Eras mus, or the sharp satire of Hutten, or Luther s weighty tractates, all seemed to him at first to be so many protests against the cbncness of a monkish past; the hymns of Marot, the bright poetry of Margaret of Valois, the king s sister, harmonized not ill with the desire for a humanist reform which prevailed at the French court. But when the destructive enthusiasm of the artisans who embraced the new opinions, breaking out in attacks on the art-treasures of the churches, alienated the royal moderates, the simpler and more marked theology of the " Sacramentarians " of Geneva quietly replaced the Lutheranism of the first Reformers; and by the middle of the 16th century the new Huguenots were an unpopular party, drawing their inspiration from Calvin, and bitterly disliked by the court and the bulk of the people of France. The persecutions, varied by protection, of the reign of Francis I. had given place to a vehement desire to crush the rising heresy; the character of Henry II. and his chief advisers led them towards a thorough persecution. Influenced by these repressive measures, and taught by Calvin s book and his frequent letters, the French Reformers now began to organize their infant churches. Hitherto they had been content to meet in quiet, to sing Marot s psalms, to listen to earnest prayer and practical discourse in some lowly chamber, deferring questions as to church government ; now their ecclesiastical system began to develop itself. In 1555 the first Protestant French church was established at Paris, and almost immediately there sprang up fifteen communities, the largest being at Meaux, Poitiers, and Angers, each having its pastor, elders, and deacons, each ruling itself, and recognizing no common bond of union save that of charity and suffering. These were the heroic days of the Huguenot movement in
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