708 ILLUMINATION umes in the public library, Rouen, were probably executed at Hyde Abbey, Winchester. The apprehensions of the year 1000 as the end of the world tended greatly to paralyse art. As these fears died away, however, the Romanesque style of architecture was being developed, especially in the Rhine-lands. This was favoured by numerous Greek artists who, deprived of their livelihood by Eastern icouoclasm, had migrated westwards, and deeply impressed the Byzantine character upon the architecture of central and western Europe. Simultane ously there arose a bold sweeping style of ornament, characterized by fine rounded curves and Byzantine details, but also by a tendency to naturalism, and, in books, by large initials. The Byzantine gold backgrounds were still a glowing feature, which indeed continued through the whole subsequent progress of illumination , From the llth century gold leaf was applied to the vellum upon a substratum of fine plaster, and could be so highly bur nished as to exhibit the rich lustre of a polished lamina of the solid metal. As skill in drawing increased, nature was moro copied, and towards the 14th century natural foliage, conventionally treated, constitutes the main portion of the ornament. The oak, the vine, and especially the ivy, are frequent, springing in free spirited curves from decorated initials, or extending into a border round the whole or part of the page. The initials decrease in size whilst they gain in excellence of execution, and illumination, considered as decorative design, is generally considered to have reached its highest perfection, about this period. The pictures of sacred subjects gradually lose Byzantine rigidity and assume dramatic expression, pose, and grouping. And towards the 15th century the blue or gold background begins to be abandoned for natural scenery and acces sories. Towards the commencement of the 15th cen tury illumination was liberally fostered by John, duke of Berri, brother of Charles V. His magnificence in this branch of art awoke the emulation of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and of the duke of Bedford, the regent of France, in the same direction. For the last-named was painted the celebrated Bedford Hours, now in the British Museum, part of the workmanship of which has been ascribed to Jan, Hubert, and Margaretta van Eyck. As perfect mastery of drawing and facility of realistic execution were gained, illumination as a decorative art became debased in design. Borders of gold or richly coloured grounds, over which are scattered exquisitely painted flowers, fruit, and insects, surround pages of text or miniatures wrought with supreme manual dexterity, but not unfrequently of meretricious composition. In juxtaposition with this rich and copious ornamentation (the primary end of the book), the text, already less black and massive than in preced ing centuries, too often dwindles into insignificance. The Hours of Anne of Brittany, preserved at the Louvre, is one of the most celebrated specimens of 16th century illumina tion of this style. The character of Italian illumination differs considerably from that which marked the art in central or northern Europe. It had arisen by slow degrees from the devasta tion which Italy had suffered in the early centuries of the Christian era. The scriptoria of Ravenna, Siena, Florence, Bologna, Perugia, Ferrara. in the 13th and 14th centuries, produced illuminated volumes worthy of their growing schools of p anting, and were especially celebrated for the elaboration of large choral books. The Renaissance, with its revival and enrichment of classical forms, was fully reflected in the illuminator s art, which was largely employed in smaller volumes for secular subjects, and was patronized by the Italian princely families, and finally reached its culmination in the hands of such artists as Girolamo dei Libri, whose drawing is very accurate, and attains a microscopic delicacy of stippling, and his pupil Giulio Clovio, who in his composition makes large use of the human figure, and with an imitation of Michelangelo s manner combines unrivalled minuteness of execution. Long after the invention of printing the popes and doges retained official illuminators in their service and some of the most elaborate and costly volumes were executed subsequently to the introduction of the press. The typographical multiplication of books, however, proved fatal to the art. The early productions of the press, indeed, had blank spaces left for initials and miniatures, which were painted in by hand, often very roughly. These were soon replaced by printed designs in tended to be gilt and coloured, which reflected the character of contemporaneous art, as far as the technical difficulties of the yet imperfect press allowed. The custom of adorning sumptuous volumes with engraved initials and other ornament has continued to the present time, with an increasing tendency to naturalism. The visitor to the public libraries and museums of Moscow and St Petersburg will have there admired the rich display of Slavonic illuminated MSS. of peculiar style, intricate design, careful execution, and frequently fine colour. The leading features of Russian art were derived from Byzantium, but, as Russian archaeologists maintain, were blended with a native element, and a true national style arose in the 12th and continued to the IGth century, when the influence of the Renaissance began to be felt. The fecund art of Constantinople was also the parent of another style the Arabian or Mahometan which, how ever, contains a previously existing Oriental element. The style began to develop in the 7th century. It is geome trical or constructive in character, the use of symbolism or representations of animals or plants being forbidden in the sect of Omar. Inscriptions in cufic characters are often happily used as a decorative feature ; rich colouring of red blue and gold prevails. The Turkish and Moresque styles are modifications of the Arabian. Illumination was carried in this style to the highest degree of splendour. Casiri s Bibliotheca Aralico-Hispana Escurialensis conveys some idea of the former magnificence of the Moorish libraries in Spain. In India illumination, though of great antiquity, does not present those transitions of style which mark the development of western art. Like Indian art generally, its special characteristics are profusion, richness, harmony, repose, and perhaps monotony, with very extensive em ployment of flowers. Persian art was derived from India. It reflects the Persian love of flowers and symbolism, arid the treatment is more free and natural than in India. It seems to have reached its highest perfection about the 15th and 16th centuries of our era, but is still continued. The execution of a magnificent MS. of the Thousand and One Nights was undertaken under the auspices of the present shah. The absence of any attempt to shade or give relief to the design is, it should here be mentioned, a characteristic of all Oriental design. During the earlier part of the Middle Ages the art of illumination was in Europe mostly practised in the scrip torium or apartment devoted to the elaboration of MSS. which was attached to each monastery. In later times the art was practised by lay artists. Illuminators as well as patrons of illumination were occasionally found among the highest ranks; Saint Dunstan and King Ren6 may be instanced. And some distinguished painters were also illuminators. All Western MSS. of fine quality were executed upon vellum. Materials were mostly prepared with great care by the artists themselves, or under their direction, and as a rule are found to have well stood the
test of time.
