I K -D I A [AGRICULTURE. finest Australian or Californian produce. Unfortunately, when a prosperous trade with Europe seemed on the point of establishing itself, the terrible year 1877-78 supervened, and India will now have to fight against the position of vantage occupied by the United States. According to the system of classification in Upper India, wheat ranks as a rabi or spring crop, being reaped at the close of the cold weather in April and May. Wherever possible, it is irri gated ; and the extension of canals through the Gangetic Do;ib has largely contributed to the substitution of wheat for inferior cereals. Millet. Taking India as a whole, it may be affirmed that the staple food grain is neither rice nor wheat, but millet, which is probably the most prolific grain in the world, and the best adapted to the vicissitudes of a tropical climate. Ex cluding the special rice-growing tracts, varieties of millet are grown more extensively than any other crop from Madras, in the south, at least as far as Kajputana, in the north, The two most common kinds are great millet (Holcus Sorghum or Sorghum vulyare), known as jodr or jawdriin the languages derived from the Sanskrit, asjonna in Telugu, and as cholam in Tamil; and spiked millet (Holcus spicatus vel Penicillaria spicata), called bdjra in the north and karnbu in the south. In Mysore and the neighbouring districts rdgi (Eleusine coracana), called nd -hani in Bombay, takes the first place. According to the Madras system of classification, these millets all rank as " dry crops," being watered only by the local rainfall, and sown under either monsoon ; farther north, they are classed with the Jcharif or autumn harvest, as opposed to wheat. Indian corn is cultivated to a limited extent in all parts of the country ; barley, in the upper valley of the Ganges, throughout the Punjab, and in Himalayan valleys ; oats, only as an experimental crop by Europeans. Jodr and rdgi, but not bdjra, are invaluable as fodder for cattle. Oil- Oil-seeds also form an important crop in all parts of the seeds. country, being perhaps more universally grown than any other, as oil is necessary, according to native customs, for application to the person, for food, and for burning in lamps. In recent years the cultivation of oil-seeds has re ceived an extraordinary stimulus owing to the demand for export to Europe, especially to France ; but as they can be grown after rice, &c., as a second crop, this increase has hardly at all tended to diminish the production of food grains. The four chief varieties grown are mustard or rape seed, linseed, til or gingelly (sesamum), and castor-oil. Bengal and the North-Western Provinces are at present the chief sources of supply for the foreign demand, but gingelly is largely exported from Madras, and, to a smaller extent, from Burmah. Vege- Vegetables are everywhere cultivated in garden plots for tables, household use, and also on a larger scale in the neighbour hood of great towns. Among favourite native vegetables, the following may be mentioned : the egg-plant, called Irijijal or baigan (Solanum Melonr/ena), potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, radishes, onions, garlic, turnips, yams, and a great variety of cucurbitaceous plants, including Cucumis sativus, Cucurbita maxima, Lagenaria vulgaris, Trichos- anthes dinica, and Benincasa cerifera. Of these, potatoes, cabbages, arid turnips are of recent introduction. Almost all English vegetables can be raised by a careful gardener. Potatoes thrive best on the higher elevations, such as the Khasi hills, the Nilgiris, the Mysore uplands, and the slopes of the Himalayas ; but they are also grown even in lowland districts. They were first introduced into the Khasi hills in 1830, and they now constitute the principal crop, the annual export to the Calcutta market being more than 7000 tons, valued at 50,000. Fruits. Among cultivated fruits are the following : Mango (Mangifera indie a), plantain (Musaparadisiaca), pine-apple (Ananassa sativa), pomegranate (Punica Granatum], guava (Psidium pomiferum et P. pyriferum), tamarind (Tama- rindus indica), jack (Artocarpus integrifolid), custard-apple (Anona squamosa), papaw (Carica Papaya), shaddock (Cit rus deciimana), and several varieties of fig, melon, orange, lime, and citron. According to the universal verdict of Europeans, no native fruits can compare with those of Eng land. But the mangoes of Bombay, of Multan, and of Maldah in Bengal, and the oranges of the Khasi hills, enjoy a high reputation ; while the guavas of Madras are made into an excellent preserve. Among spices, for the preparation of curry and other Spices hot dishes, turmeric and chillies hold the first place, being very generally cultivated. Next in importance come ginger, coriander, aniseed, black cummin, and fenugreek. Pepper proper is confined to the Malabar coast, from Kiinara to Travancore. Cardamoms are a valuable crop in the same locality, and also in the Nepdlese Himalayas. Pan or betel-leaf is grown by a special caste in most parts of the country. Its cultivation requires constant care, but is highly remunerative. Betel-nut or areca is chiefly grown in certain favoured localities, such as the deltaic districts of Bengal and the highlands of southern India. Besides betel-nut (Areca Cateclui), the palms of India in- Palms elude the cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera}, the bastard date (Phoenix sylvestris), the palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis), and the true date (2 } ha j mx dactylifera). The cocoa-nut, which loves a sandy soil and a moist climate, is found in greatest perfection along the strip of coast-line that fringes the west of the peninsula, where it ranks next to rice as the staple product. The bastard date, grown chiefly in the country round Calcutta and in the north east of the Madras presidency, supplies both the jaggery sugar of commerce and intoxicating liquors for local con sumption. Spirit is also distilled from the palmyra, espe cially in the neighbourhood of Bombay and in the south east of Madras. The true date is almost confined to Sind. Sugar is manufactured both from the sugar-cane and Sugar, from the bastard date-palm, but the total production is in adequate to the local demand. The best cane is grown in the North-Western Provinces, on irrigated land. It is an expensive crop, requiring much attention, and not yielding a return within the year ; but the profits are proportion ately large. In Bengal the manufacture of sugar for exportation has declined during the century; but in Jessor district the preparation of date-sugar is a thriving and popular industry. The manufacture of sugar is everywhere in the hands of natives, except in the case of the Aska factory in the Madras district of Ganjdm, and the Ashtagrara factory in Mysore. Both these factories, which use sugar cane and not date, have received honourable notice at exhibitions in Europe. Cotton holds the first place among agricultural products Cotton, grown for export. From the earliest times, cotton has been grown in sufficient quantities to meet the local demand, and even in the last century there was some slight export which was carefully fostered by the East India Company. But the present importance of the crop dates only from the crisis in Lancashire caused by the American War. Prior to 1860 the exports of raw cotton from India used to average less than 3 millions sterling a year ; but after that date they rose by leaps, until in 18G6 they reached the enormous total of 37 millions. Then came the crash, caused by the restoration of peace in the United States, and the exports fell, until they now average little more than 8 millions a year. The fact is that Indian cotton has a short staple, and cannot compete with the best American cotton for spinning the finer qualities of yarn. But while the cotton famine was at its height, the culti
vators were intelligent enough to make the most of their
