ADMINISTRATION.] INDIA 775 extreme south, composed works in Tamil, which are still acknowledged as classical by native authors, so did tho lUptist mission at Serampur, near Calcutta, first raise Bengali to the rank of a literary dialect. The interest of the missionaries in education, which has never ceased to the present day, though now comparatively overshadowed by Government activity, had two distinct aspects. They studied the vernacular, in order to reach the people by their preaching and to translate the Bible ; and they taught English, as the channel of non-sectarian learning. At last the Government awoke to its own responsibility in the matter of education, after the long and acrimonious controversy between the advocates of English and ver nacular teaching had worn itself out. The present system dates from 1854, being based upon a comprehensive despatch sent out by Sir C. Wood (afterwards Lord Halifax) in that year. At that time the three universities were founded at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay ; English-teach ing schools were established in every district ; the benefit of grants-in-aid was extended to the lower vernacular institutions and to girls schools; and public instruction was erected into a department of the administration in every province, under a director, with a staff of inspectors. In some respects this scheme may have been in a/lvance of the time ; but it supplied a definite outline, which has gradu ally been filled up with each succeeding year of progress. A network of schools has now been spread over the country, graduated from the indigenous village institutions up to the highest colleges. All alike receive some measure of pecuniary support, which is justified by the guarantee of rogular inspection ; and a series of scholarships at once stimulates efficiency and opens a path to the university for children of the poor. In 1877-78 the total number of educational institutions of all sorts in British India was 66,202, attended by an aggregate of 1,877,942 pupils, showing an average of one school to every 14 square miles, and nine pupils to every thousand of the population. In the same year the total expenditure upon education from all sources was 1,612,775, of which 782,240 was con tributed by the provincial governments, 258,514 was derived from local rates, and 32,008 from municipal grants. These items may be said to represent state aid, while endowments yielded37,218, subscriptions 105, 853, and fees and fines 277,039. The degree in which edu cation has been popularized and private effort has been stimulated may be estimated from the fact that in Bengal the total of voluntary payments now exactly balances the total of Government grants. Univrrsitir.s. The three universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were incorporated in 1857, on the model of the university of London. They are merely examining bodies, composed of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and senate, with the privilege of conferring degrees in arts, law, medicine, and civil engineering. The governing body, or syndicate, consists of the vice-chan cellor and certain members of the senate. Quite recently a fourth university, on the same plan, has been founded at Lahore for the Punjab. Though not themselves places of instruction, the universities control the whole course of higher education by means of their examinations. The entrance examination for matriculation is open to all ; but when that is passed candidates for higher stages must enrol themselves in one or other of the affiliated colleges. In the ten years ending 1877-78 9686 candidates success fully passed the entrance examination at Calcutta, 6381 at Madras, and 2610 at Bombay. Many fall off at that stage, and very few proceed to the higher degrees. During the same ten years 952 graduated B.A., and only 254 M. A., with honours, at Calcutta ; 496 B.A. and 14 M.A. at Madras ; 217 B.A. and 28 M.A. at Bombay. Calcutta possesses by far the majority of graduates in law and medicine, while Bombay is similarly distinguished in engineering. In 1877-78 the total expenditure on the four universities was 22,093. V ^- The colleges or institutions for higher instruction may be divided into two classes, those which teach the arts course of the univer sities, and those devoted to special branches of knowledge. Accord ing to another principle, they are classified into those entirely sup ported by Government and those which only receive grants-in-aid. The latter class comprises the missionary colleges. In 1877-78 the total number of colleges, including medical and engineering colleges and Mahometan madrasas, was 82, attended by 8894 stu dents. Of these, 35 colleges with 3848 students were in Bengal proper, and 21 colleges with 1448 students in Madras. In the same year the total expenditure on the colleges was 186,162, or at the rate of 21 per student. Boys Schools. This large class includes many varieties, which may be subdivided either according to the character of the instruc tion given, or according to the proportion of Government aid they receive. The higher schools are those in which not only is English taught, but that language is also the medium of instruction. They educate up to the standard of the entrance examination at the universities, and train generally those candidates who seek employ ment in the upper grades of Government service. As far as possible one of these schools, known as the zild or district school, is estab lished by Government at the head-quarters of every district, and many others receive grants-in-aid. The middle schools, as their name implies, are intermediate between the higher and the primary schools. Generally speaking, they are placed in the smaller towns and larger villages, and they provide that measure of instruction which is recognized to be useful by the. middle classes themselves. Some of them teach English, but others only the vernacular. This class includes the taJisili schools, established at tho headquarters of every tahsilor subdivision in the North- Western Provinces. In 1877-78 the total expenditure on both higher and middle schools was 478,250. The lower and primary schools complete the series. They present every degree of efficiency, from the indigenous and unaided village school to the vernacular schools in the presidency capitals. Their extension is the chief test of the success of the educational system. No uniformity prevails in this matter through out the several provinces. In Bengal up to the last few years primary instruction was sadly neglected ; but, since the reforms in augurated by Sir G. Campbell in 1872, by which the benefit of the grant-in-aid rules was extended to the pdthsdlds or village schools, this reproach, has been removed. In 1871-72 the total number of primary schools under inspection was only 2451, attended by 64,779 pupils. By 1877-78 the number of schools had risen to 16,042, and the number of pupils to 360,322, being an increase of about sixfold in six years. In the latter year the total expenditure from all sources was 78,000, towards which Government contri buted only 27,000, thus showing how state aid stimulates private outlay. The North- Western Provinces owe their system of primary instruction to their great lieutenant-governor, Mr Thomason, whose constructive talent can be traced in every department of the administration. In addition to the tahsili or middle schools already referred to, he drew up a scheme for establishing halkabandi or primary schools in every central village (whence their name), to which the children from the surrounding hamlets might resort. His scheme has since been largely developed by means of the edu cational cess added to the land revenue. In Bombay the primary schools are mainly supported out of local funds raised in a similar manner. In British Burmah, on the other hand, primary education is still left to a great extent in the hands of Buddhist monks, wh receive no pecuniary support from Government. The monastic schools are only open to boys, but there are also lay teachers who admit girls to mixed classes. Government has hardly any schools of its own in Burmah, the deficiency being supplied by several missionary bodies, who obtain state aid. In many parts of the Madras presidency, also, the missionaries possess a practical mono poly of education at the present day. In 1877-78 the amount of money expended upon lower and primary schools in British India was 406,135. or just one-fourth of the total educational budget. Girls Schools. Of late years something has been done, though not much, to extend the advantages of education to "iris. In this, j as in other educational matters, the missionaries nave been the I pioneers of progress. In a few exceptional places, such as Tinne- velli in Madras, the Khasi hills of Assam, and among the Karen
- tribes of Burmah, female education has a real existence, for in these
places the missionaries have influence enough to overcome the pre- i judices of the people. But elsewhere, even in the large towns and i among the English-speaking classes, all attempts to develop the | intelligence of women are regarded with scarcely disguised aversion. I Throughout the North-Western Provinces, with their numerous and ! wealthy cities, and a total female population of 15 millions, only 6550 girls attended school in 1877-78. In Bengal, with just double the inhabitants, the corresponding number was less than j 12,000. Madras, British Burmah, and to a small degree Bombay ! and the Punjab, are the only provinces that contribute to the I following statistics in any tolerable proportion: Total girls schools in 1877-78, 2002 ; number of pupils, 66,615; mixed schools for Iwys and girls, 2955; pupils, 90,915; total amount expended on girls schools, 78,729, of which 27,000 was devoted to the 12,000 girl* of Bengal. Normal and othfr Spccinl Schools, &c. In 1877-78 the normal
and technical sohools numbered 155, with a total of 6864 students;
