aboriginal population of about four millions. But the seven millions of pure and mixed Indians occupying the remainder of the land, 5 millions of square miles in extent, are divided into a multiplicity of tribes, whose racial and linguistic affinities present problems the solution of which must long tax the utmost ingenuity of science. The total number of distinct languages alone is estimated at about 760, of which 430 are in the north and 330 in the south. In the northern division Balbi reckons, exclusive of California, thirty-two stock languages, far too low an estimate, while Rivero and Tschudi consider that of the southern idioms as many as four-fifths are radically distinct. But all such calculations are mere vague guesses at the truth; and in the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to form an estimate of the actual number of languages still current in Gran Chaco, Chiquitos, the Amazon valley, Central America, Mexico, California, the Columbia basin, regions where an extraordinary complexity of speech prevails. Nevertheless language forms on the whole perhaps the most convenient basis of classification, and without its aid it would have been impossible to determine the affinities of many wide-spread races, such, for instance, as that of the Arizona Apaches with the Canadian Chippewyans, or on the other hand to separate nations apparently closely related, like the Iroquois from their Algonquin neighbours, or the Araucanians from the Peruvians. The true relations of many tribes are, on the other hand, still doubtful, because of uncertainty regarding the languages they speak. Such are the Cheyennes, Blackfeet, and Arapahoes, classed by some with the Dakotas, by others more probably with the Algonquins. Such also are the so-called Diegueños (Kizh, Netela, and Kechi) of South California, oscillating between the Shoshone (Snake) and Yuma connexions, and the Pawnees of Nebraska and Kansas grouped by Bancroft with the Shoshone, but by Morgan regarded as an independent race. So close is the physical resemblance in these and many other cases that the question must ultimately be decided by a more exhaustive study of their languages.
The American races may be conveniently grouped under the following eighteen divisions:—
I. Hyperborean Races.—This division may on the whole be regarded as possessing a certain ethnical, linguistic, and geographical unity. Still the Aleutians differ so greatly in language, and in some respects in type, from the Eskimo proper that it seems desirable to class them separately. The Eskimo (or "Innuits," as they call themselves) are thus distributed by Dall:—
Kopagmut, mouth of the Mackenzie; Kangmâtigmut, thence to Manning Point; Nûwukmut, about Point Barrow and Icy Cape; Kowagmut, east end of Hotham Inlet; Salawigmut, at Salawik river; Chuklukmut, Gulf of Anadyr, Asia, often confounded with the Tchuktchis, from whom they are entirely distinct; Okee-ogmut, the islands north of 63° N. lat.; Kikhtogamut, St Lawrence Island; Kaviagmut, between Kotzebue and Norton Sounds; Mahlemut, neck of Kadiak Peninsula; Unaligmut, from Norton Sound to mouth of the Yukon; Ekogmut, Yukon Delta; Magemut, from Yukon to Kuskokwim river; Kuskwogmut, Kuskokwim Bay; Nushagagmut, Bristol Bay, west to Cape Newenham; Ogulmut, north side of Alaska peninsula; Kaniagmut, south side of Alaska peninsula and Kadiak Island; Chugachigmut, Prince William's Sound to Atna river; Ugalakmut, from Atna river to Mount St Elias.
The last-named, the Ugalenzes of the Russians, call themselves Chilkhatmut, and are undoubtedly true Eskimo, although frequently confounded with the Thlinkeets, on whose domain they converge. The few Innuit tribes east of the Mackenzie have not been classified, but two of them, the Netchillik and Uquîsiksillik, were met by Lieut. Schwatka in 1879, who received from them some particulars regarding the remains of the Franklin expedition.
Of the Aleuts, whose collective name is "Ungungun," or "People," there are two divisions:—
1. Unalashkans, who call themselves Kagataya Kung'n ("Men of the East"), occupying the extremity of the Alaska Peninsula, as far as 160° W., and the Unalashka or Fox Islands. 2. Atkhas, occupying all the other Aleutian Islands.
II. Thlinkeets.—These form a distinct ethnical and linguistic group, occupying a compact geographical area along the Pacific coast from about Mount St Elias to the Simpson river, and including Sitka and the other adjacent islands. They are often called "Koloshes," a term of doubtful origin, but the national name is "T'linket," "man," or "T'linketantûkwan," "men belonging to all villages." The tribal divisions are:—
Yakutat, between Mounts St Elias and Fairweather; Chilkhatkwan, Chilkhaht river valley; Sitkakwan, Sitka Islands and part of Prince of Wales Islands; Stâkhinkwan, lower course of Stikine river; Takukwan and Skatkwan, Taku Inlet, Alaska; Hudsunu, Hood's Bay and Huchinu Rapids; Iliknu and Tungass, about Simpson river.
The Thlinkeet language seems to be completely isolated, showing nothing beyond the faintest verbal resemblance to the Aleut and more southern Hydah. It has a plural in k, and an instrumental form in tch or tsh, the combination of which produces a heaping up of final consonants, which none but the natives can pronounce. Thus ass, tree; asstsh, by a tree; isk, trees; assktsh, by trees. (See "Notes on the Sitkakwan Dialect," by J. Furnhelm, in Contributions to American Ethnology, vol. i.)
III. Columbian Races.—The general grouping of these is purely geographical, the main divisions largely ethnical and linguistic; the area, British Columbia, Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Islands, Washington, and Oregon. Here are five stock races speaking an immense number of dialects, which, owing to their extremely evanescent character, it is very difficult to classify. The Puget Sound district, in the north-west of Washington, is in this respect specially remarkable. But great light has recently been thrown on this Babel of tongues by the labours of G. Gibbs, published by Dall, in North American Ethnology, vol. i. p. 240. The five stock races with their chief tribal subdivisions are as follows:—
1. Hydahs.—The Kaigani of Prince of Wales Islands and north coast of Queen Charlotte Islands; the Klue, Kiddan, Ninstence, Skid-a-gate, Skid-a-gatee, Cum-she-was, and Chut-sin-ni of Queen Charlotte Islands; and the Tsimsians, including the Kispachloht of Fort Simpson, the Kl'kuskamoluk of river Naas, and the Kittistzu, Hailtzukh, Bilikûla, and Kwa-Kiûtl of Milbank Sound. 2. Nutkas.—The Ahts, including Pachînaht, Nitinaht, Ohyaht, Howchuklisaht, Klah-oh-quaht, Manohsaht, Nishquayaht, Ayhuttisaht, and Khahosaht, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, in their order going northwards; the Makaor Klasset, about Cape Flattery; and the Quoquoulth, Komux, Kowitchan, Klallum, Ukletas, Sokes, Pachina, and Sankaulutuch, of the east coast of Vancouver Island. 3. Selish or Flat Heads.—The Kwantlum and Haitlin or Tait, Fraser river below Fort Yale; the Kalispelm, Quarlpi, Spokane, Pisquouse, Soniatlpi, of middle Columbia basin; the Nisqualli (including the Skokomish, S'hotlmamish, Sawamish, Segwallitsu, Puyallupahmish, Dwamish, Snohomish, Snokwalmu, Yakama, Skagit, Lummi,and S'klallam) of Puget Sound; the Chihalis or Tsihalis, Grey Harbour; and the Shushwaps (including Shewhapmuch, Kutenais, and Okanagan) of Upper Columbia. 4. Sahaptins or Nez Percés.—The Taitiuapam, right bank of Columbia to Adam's Mount; the Klikatat, about Mount St Helens; the Yakima, Yakima Valley; the Walla Walla, Palouse, Tairtla, Cayuse, and Mollale of upper Clear Water and Snake rivers; and the Kamai and Lapwai of Idaho reserve. 5. Chinuks.—The Watlala, Skdlût, Kathlamet, Wakiakum, Klatsop, Klakama, Kalapuya, Yamkally, and Killamuk of lower Columbia basin, mostly extinct. Speech radically distinct, but now represented only by the Chinuk jargon.
The names of Nos. 1 and 2 are purely conventional. Hydah or Haida was originally applied by Francis Poole to the Queen Charlotte tribes, and was afterwards extended to all the members of that family. Nutka, from Nutka Sound, west coast of Vancouver Island, came gradually into use as the collective name of the eastern Vancouver tribes, and of some peoples on the opposite mainland ethnically related to them. But the languages differ so widely that they cannot be reduced to a common root. Though possessing great intelligence and even considerable artistic skill, shown especially in their wood and bone carvings and plastic works, these north-western nations betray an absolute incapacity for adapting themselves to civilized institutions. Sproat tells us that many of those who have been settled, under the most favourable circumstances, in different parts of Vancouver, simply die out through inanition, or from sudden change of life.
IV. Californian Races.—This is mainly a geographical grouping, but with three large ethnical and linguistic families—the Klamath, Pomo, and Runsien. Many of the others belong to the Shoshone, Athabascan, and Yuma connexions. But the rest form a chaos of tribes, generally of a debased physical and moral type, and speaking rude dialects which baffle all attempts at classification. They are all rapidly disappearing into the "reserves," or off the face of the land. The Klamath family, in the Klamath river basin, and thence eastwards to Nevada, comprises the Lutuami or Klamaths proper, the Cahrocs and Eurocs ("Upper and Lower Rocs"), the Modocs, Yacons, Shastas, Weitspeks, Wishosks, Wallies, Yukas, and others stretching south to the Humboldt river. South of them are the Pomos, or "People," mainly in the Potter valley, including the Kahto, Choam, Chadela, Kalamet, Shebalne, Lama, Comacho, Socoa, Sanel, and the Gallinomero of the Russian River. Still further south are the Runsiens of Monterey Bay, with linguistic affinities stretching all along the coast northwards to San Francisco, and southwards beyond Cape Concepcion to the islands of San Miguel and Sta Cruz. The chief members of the group are the Eslenes, Olhones, Mipacmacs, Yolos, Talluches, Waches, Powells, and others about Lake Tulare. In the Napa valley is a small family including the Ulukas, Suskols, Kalayomanes, Myacomas, and Caymus; and in the Sacramento valley are the Secumne, Kosumne, Yasumne, Ochecumne, Chupumne, and some twenty others, whose tribal names all end in umne, and who may perhaps be regarded as forming a distinct linguistic group. But they will have vanished before the point can be settled.[1]
- ↑ In the eyes of certain ethnologists California has always been a favourite harbour of refuge for distressed Chinese or Japanese junks, whose crews are to be regarded as the founders of the arts, cultures, and empires of the New World. A recent attempt to revive this theory has been made by Lieutenant Wheeler (Expedition through South California, 1875), who found some apparently archaic Chinese hieroglyphics cut into the basalt rocks near Benton, South California. These have been published in Petermann's Mittheilungen (vol. xxiii. part 4, 1877) by Oscar Loew, who fancies he can decipher the Chinese symbol for to, i.e., earth, and thence draws an argument in favour of the wild theory seriously advocated in Charles Leland's Fusang; or the Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests in the Fifth Century. He also compares words from various Californian idioms with Japanese and Chinese, forgetting that these two languages themselves belong to two entirely different orders of speech, and have nothing in common beyond coincidences and borrowings.
