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an opponent. To him, therefore, Lessing addressed his most elaborate answers, – Eine Parabel, Axiomata, eleven letters with the title Anti-Goeze, and two pamphlets in reply to an inquiry by Goeze as to what Lessing meant by Christianity. These papers are not only full of thought and learning; they are written with a grace, vivacity, and energy that make them hardly less interesting to-day than they were to Lessing's contemporaries. He does not undertake to defend the conclusions of Reimarus; his immediate object is to claim the right of free criticism in regard even to the highest subjects of human thought. The argument on which he chiefly relies is that the Bible cannot be considered necessary to a belief in Christianity, since Christianity was a living and conquering power before the New Testament in its present form was recognized by the church. The true evidence for what is essential in Christianity, he contends, is its adaptation to the wants of human nature; hence the religious spirit is undisturbed by the speculations and researches of the boldest thinkers. The effect of this controversy was to secure wider freedom for writers on theology, and to suggest new problems regarding the growth of Christianity, the formation of the canon, and the essence of religion. On one subject, the origin of the gospels, Lessing poured a flood of fresh light in a treatise, published after his death, presenting "A New Hypothesis concerning the Evangelists, regarded as merely human writers." The Brunswick Government having, in deference to the consistory, confiscated the "Fragments" and ordered Lessing to discontinue the controversy, he resolved, as he wrote to Elise Reimarus, to "try whether they would let him preach undisturbed from his old pulpit, the stage." In Nathan der Weise, written in the winter of 1778-79, he gave poetic form to the ideas which he had already developed in prose. Its governing conception is that noble character may be associated with the most diverse creeds, and that there can, therefore, be no good reason why the holders of one set of religious principles should not tolerate those who maintain wholly different doctrines. This element of Nathan der Weise receives so much attention from its critics that many of them overlook the high artistic qualities of the work. As a play it has serious imperfections, but as a dramatic poem it is one of the finest creations of the 18th century. The characters possess true vitality, and several passages (including, of course, the famous passage setting forth the parable of the three rings) have both the depth and the spontaneity which are the unmistakable notes of genius. In 1780 appeared Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts, the first half of which he had published in 1777 with one of the "Fragments." This work, composed of a hundred brief paragraphs, was the last, and is, perhaps, the most suggestive, of Lessing's writings. The doctrine on which its argument is based is that no dogmatic creed can be regarded as final, but that every historical religion has played a great part in the development of the spiritual life of mankind. Lessing also maintains that history reveals a definite law of progress, and that occasional retrogression may be necessary for the advance of the world towards its ultimate goal. These ideas afterwards became familiar, but they offered a striking contrast to the principles both of orthodox and of sceptical writers in Lessing's day, and gave a wholly new direction to religious philosophy. Another work of Lessing's last years, Ernst und Falk (a series of five dialogues, of which the first three were published in 1777, the last two in 1780), also indicated in a fascinating style many new points of view. Its nominal subject is freemasonry, but its real aim is to plead for a humane and charitable spirit in opposition to a narrow patriotism, an extravagant respect for rank, and exclusive devotion to any particular church.
Lessing's theological opinions exposed him to much petty persecution, and he was in almost constant straits for money. Nothing, however, broke his manly and generous spirit. To the end he was always ready to help those who appealed to him for aid, and he devoted himself with growing ardour to the search for truth. He formed many new plans of work, but in the course of 1780 it became evident to his friends that he would not be able much longer to continue his labours. His health had been undermined by excessive work and anxiety, and after a short illness he died at Brunswick on the 22d of January 1781.
He was rather above the middle height, and during the greater part of his life maintained an appearance of vigour and elasticity. Luther himself was not of a more fearless and independent character. In an age when men of letters were fond of grouping themselves in sects and coteries, Lessing pursued his own way, unmoved by clamour, and indifferent to popular favour. Yet no man was ever more warmly loved by friends, and he had the satisfaction of knowing that the younger generation of writers looked up to him with confidence and reverence. Jacobi wished for many years to make his acquaintance, but was deterred from addressing him, as he explained to Lessing, by a profound consciousness of the difference between himself and one whom he regarded as "a king among minds." "We lose much, much in him," wrote Goethe after Lessing's death, "more than we think." It may be questioned whether there is any other writer to whom the Germans owe a deeper debt of gratitude. He was succeeded by poets and philosophers who for a time gave Germany the first place in the intellectual life of the world, and it was Lessing, as they themselves acknowledged, who prepared the way for their achievements. Without attaching himself to any particular system of philosophical doctrine, he fought incessantly against error, and in regard to art, poetry, the drama, and religion, suggested ideas which kindled the enthusiasm of aspiring minds, and stimulated their highest energies. While his work was thus effective in its own day, it has lost little of its value for later ages. His great dramas have imaginative qualities which appeal to every generation, and an unfading charm is conferred on his critical and theological writings by the power and classical purity of his style.
The first edition of his collected works appeared, in 30 vols., in 1771-94. A critical edition by Lachmann, in 13 vols., was issued in 1838-40, and this edition was revised, with additions, by Maltzahn in 1853-57. In 1868-77 Lessing's works, edited by several competent scholars, were published in 20 vols. by Hempel, and there is an illustrated edition in 8 vols. (Grote, 1875-76). See Lessing's Leben, 1793, by Karl G. Lessing (his brother); Danzel, G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke, 1850 (completed by Guhrauer, 1853-54); Stahr, G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke, 1859; H. Düntzer, Lessing's Leben, 1882; and in English, J. Sime, Lessing, 1877, and H. Zimmern, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, 1878. (J. SI.)
L'ESTRANGE, Sir Roger (1616-1704), an indefatigable pamphleteer on the royalist and court side during the Restoration epoch, but principally remarkable as the first English man of letters of any distinction who made journalism a profession, was born at Hunstanton in Norfolk, December 17, 1616. In 1644, during the civil war, he headed a conspiracy to seize the town of Lynn for the king, under circumstances which led to his being condemned to death as a spy. The sentence, however, was not executed, and after four years imprisonment in Newgate he escaped to the Continent. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity, but in 1653 was pardoned by Cromwell upon his personal solicitation, and lived quietly until the Restoration, when after some delay his services and sufferings were acknowledged by his appointment as licenser of the press. This office was administered by him in the
