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the greatest mountain elevations yet attained by man, on projecting rocks even far above the snow-line (e.g., Lecidea geographica), where, as in many other situations, fungus-mycelium and gonidioid algal are unknown. Our know ledge of the distribution of lichens in various countries, like that of other plants, is derived from general and local floras, from special works on lichenology, from the observations of scientific travellers and the collections made by them in distant parts of the world. Most of these, however, of an earlier date, are to be used with great caution, as the species recorded were, in the absence of microscopical examination, not sufficiently discriminated, and in many cases are prima facie entirely erroneous. Amongst botanical travellers whose contributions are most trustworthy may be mentioned pre-eminently Sir Joseph D. Hooker, whose remarks on this subject in his Flora Antarctica and in various papers in Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiv., &c., are most valuable and suggestive. Again, in purely lichenological works, the general principles regulating lichen distribution (with statistical tables) are admirably expounded by Nylander in the introduction to his Synopsis Methodica Lichenum, while the only complete record of the distribution of species is that given by the same author in his Enumération générale des Lichens. Since the date of this latter work (1858) our knowledge of the range of lichens, both European and exotic, has been greatly extended, apart from the discovery of numerous species previously unknown. No special treatise, however, on the subject has been published, though there is now ample material, very much scattered no doubt, available for the purpose. It may, however, be observed that of the four thousand species (exclusive of numerous varieties and forms) which have been described, the geographical distribution is known almost as well as that of phanerogams and filices, as well, if not more so than that of mosses and hepatics, and far better than that of algæ and fungi. In arctic regions lichens form by far the largest portion of the vegetation, occurring everywhere on the ground and on rocks, and fruiting freely; while terricole species of Cladonia and Stereocaulon are seen in the greatest luxuriance and abundance spreading over extensive tracts almost to the entire, exclusion of other vegetation. The lichen flora of temperate regions again is essentially distinguished from the preceding by the frequency of corticole species belonging to Lecanora, Lecidea, and Graphidei.' In intertropical regions lichens attain their maximum development (and beauty) in the foliaceous Stictei and Parmeliei, while they are especially characterized by epiphyllous species, as Strigula, and by many peculiar corticole Thelotremei, Graphidei, and Pyrenocarpei. Some lichens, especially saxicole ones, seem to be cosmopolitan (e.g., Lecanora subfusca, Cladonia pyxidata); and others, not strictly cosmopolitan, have been observed in regions widely apart. A considerable number of species, European and exotic, seem to be endemic, but further research will no doubt show that most of them occur in other climatal regions similar to those in which they have hitherto alone been detected. To give any detailed account, however, of the distribution of the different genera (not to speak of that of individual species) of lichens would necessarily far exceed the limits at our disposal. Suffice it to say that both in horizontal and vertical range, they sufficiently correspond with the distribution of phanerogams in the several regions of vegetation into which the surface of the globe has been divided. The proportion of lichens to phanerogams in different regions increases in a regular ratio from the equator to the poles, and from the base to the summit of lofty mountains, till at length in more arctic and alt-alpine tracts lichens constitute almost and sometimes entirely the sole vegetation, (J. M. C.)
LICHFIELD, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, is situated in a pleasant and fertile valley, on a small tributary of the Trent, and on the South Staffordshire Railway, 16 miles north from Birmingham. The town is well built, and contains many handsome houses. Of the old Norman cathedral there are now no remains. The present building is supposed to belong to the end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th century. Its style is Early English approaching to Decorated, and it possesses an imposing central tower 285 feet in height, with two western spires 183 feet. The transepts, which contain some portions of Norman architecture, are richly ornamented, and adorned with windows of beautiful tracery. The total length of the building from east to west is 403 feet. The damage which it suffered during the civil wars was repaired by Bishop Hackett in 1671, and at present (1882) it is undergoing extensive restorations. A new building for the King Edward's grammar school was erected in 1850. In the market-place is a statue of Dr Johnson, facing the house where he was born. A guild-hall, a market-hall, a corn exchange, and a public library and museum are the principal buildings of a secular character. There are several charitable institutions. The industries of the town include brewing and coach-building ; and in the neighbourhood there are large nurseries and market gardens. The municipal and parliamentary boroughs have the same area (3416 acres); the population in 1871 was 7347, and in 1881 8360.
Lichfield is spelt by Bede Licidfeld, the word being supposed to mean "Field of the Dead," from a massacre which took place near it of a large number of Christians. It was made an episcopal see in 669, St Chad being its first bishop. In the reign of Offa it was promoted to be an archbishopric, but in 803 the primacy was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see of Lichfield was transferred to Chester, and thence, a few years afterwards, to Coventry, but it was restored in 1148. The town has returned members to parliament since 1305, at which time it also received a charter of incorporation. Since 1867 it has returned only one member. It was made a city by Edward VI. in 1549.
See the histories of Lichfield by Jackson (1805) and Hanvood (1806), and histories of the cathedral by Britton (1820) and Stone (1870).
LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies, and the Glan, now forms the circle of St Wendel in the government district of Treves, Rhenish Prussia. The principality was constructed of parts of the old electorate of Treves, Pfalz-Zweibrücken, and Salm, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to whom it was presented by Prussia in 1815 in accordance with terms agreed upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of £26,000 sterling. The area is 210 square miles, and the population 45,000.
LICHTENBERG, Georg Christoph (1744-1799), physicist and satirical writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, July 1, 1744. In 1763 he entered Göttingen university, where in 1770, after spending several years in England, he became extraordinary professor of physics, and five years later ordinary professor. This post he continued to hold till his death, February 24, 1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures (see vol. viii. p. 66), which are fully described in two memoirs De nova methodo naturam ac motum fluidi electrici investigandi (Göttingen, 1778-79). He sent many excellent contributions to the Göttingen Taschenkalender from 1778 onwards, and to the Göttingische Magazin der Literaiur und Wissenschaft, which he edited for three years (1780-82) along with J. G. A. Forster.
