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arose; it made the Bible familiar to the people in their mother tongue, and this must have been a positive preparation for the English Reformation of no ordinary power. May not the great peculiarity of the English Reformation on its religious side, the repeated attempts to give a good version of the Bible from the original tongues into English, by Tyndale, Coverdale, Taverner, Cranmer, the Genevan refugees, and Parker, with the revisions and combinations of these various translations, on to our present authorized version, have come from the fact that Lollard Biblemen, as Pecock calls them, had made a good English Bible a necessity for an English reformation of religion?
Literature. – Lechler, Johann von Wiclif, 2d vol. 1873; Shirley, Fasciculus Zizaniorum, Master of the Rolls Series, 1858; Babington's edition of Pecock's Repressor of over much blaming of the Clergy, 2 vols., Master of the Rolls Series, 1860; Matthew, The English Works of John Wyclif, Early English Text Society, 1880; Wright, Political Poems and Songs, Master of the Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1859; J. Gairdner and J. Spedding, Studies in English History, 1881; Foxe's Book of Martyrs; Höfler's Anna von Luxemburg, 1871. (T. M. L.)
LOMBARD, Peter (c. 1100-1160), bishop of Paris, better known as Magister Sententiarum, the son of obscure parents, was born about the beginning of the 12th century, at Kovara (then reckoned as belonging to Lombardy). After receiving his education in jurisprudence and the liberal arts at Bologna, he removed to France, bearing a recommendation to Bernard of Clairvaux, who first placed him under Lotolf at Rheims, and afterwards sent him to Paris with letters to Gilduin, the abbot of St Victor. His diligence and talents soon brought him into notice, and ultimately obtained for him a theological chair, which he held for a number of years; during this period he is said to have been the first to introduce theological degrees. On June 29, 1159, he succeeded his former pupil, Philip, brother of Louis VII, in the bishopric of Paris, but did not long survive the promotion; according to the most trustworthy of the meagre accounts we have of his life, he died on July 20 of the following year.
His famous theological handbook, Sententiarum Libri Quatuor, is, as the title implies, primarily a collection of "sententiæ patrum." These are arranged (professedly on the basis of the aphorism of Augustine, Lombard's favourite authority, that "omnis doctrina vel rerum est vel signorum") into four books, of which the first treats of God, the second of the creature, the third of the incarnation, the work of redemption, and the virtues, and the fourth of the seven sacraments and eschatology. It soon attained immense popularity, ultimately becoming the text-book in almost every theological school, and giving rise to endless commentaries. A charge of heresy ("nihilianism") was indeed raised against Lombard for a particular view which he seemed not remotely to have indicated regarding Christ's human nature, but neither at the synod of Tours, where the question was first broached in 1163, nor at the subsequent Lateran synod in 1179, does a condemnation seem to have been obtained. In 1300 the theological professors of Paris agreed in the rejection of sixteen propositions taken from Lombard, but their decision was far from obtaining universal currency.
Besides the Sententiæ, Lombard wrote numerous commentaries (e.g., on the Psalms, Canticles, Job, the Gospel Harmony, and the Pauline Epistles), sermons and letters, which still exist in MS. The Glossæ sen Commentarius in Psalmos Davidis, first published at Paris in 1533, and the Collectanea in omnes D. Pauli Epistolas (Paris, 1535) have been reprinted by Migne.
LOMBARDS. The history of the Lombards falls into three divisions: – (1) The period before the invasion in 568 A.D.; (2) the Lombard kingdom in Italy between 568 and 774; (3) the period of their incorporation with the Italian population, and the history of Lombardy and its cities as one of the great provinces of Italy – (a) from the restoration of the empire under Charles the Great (800) to the peace of Constance with Frederick Barbarossa (1183), and (b) from the declaration of independence to the time of the tyrannies and, afterwards, of the French, Spanish, and Austrian rule.
1. The name Lombard is the Italianized form of the national name of a Teutonic tribe, Longobardi, itself an Italian arrangement, based on a supposed etymology of the Teutonic Langbard, Langobardi, the form used when they are first named by Roman writers – Velleius and Tacitus. The etymology which made the name mean Longbeard is too obvious not to have suggested itself to Italians, and perhaps to themselves (see Zeuss, 95, 109); it is accepted by their first native chronicler, Paul the Deacon, who wrote in the time of Charles the Great. But the name has also been derived from the region where they are first heard of. On the left bank of the Elbe, "where Börde or Bord still signifies a fertile plain by the side of a river," a district near Magdeburg is still called the Lange Börde; and lower down the Elbe, on the same side, about Lüneburg, the Bardengau, with its Bardewik, is still found; it is here that Velleius, who accompanied Tiberius in his campaign in this part of Germany, and who first mentions the name, places them. As late as the age of their Italian settlement the Lombards are called Bardi in poetical epitaphs, though this may be for the convenience of metre.
Their own legends bring the tribe as worshippers of Odin from Scandinavia to the German shore of the Baltic, under the name of Winili, a name which was given to them in a loose way as late as the 12th century (e.g., by Ordericus Vitalis; cf. Zeuss, 57). By the Roman and Greek writers of the first two centuries of our era they are spoken of as occupying, with more or less extension at different times, the region which is now Hanover and the Altmark of Prussia. To the Romans they appeared a remarkable tribe: – "gens etiam Germana feritate ferocior," says Velleius, who had fought against them under Tiberius; and Tacitus describes them as a race which, though few in numbers, more than held their own among numerous powerful neighbours by their daring and love of war. In the quarrels of the tribes they appear to have extended their borders; in Ptolemy's account of Germany, in the 2d century, they fill a large space among the races of the north-west and north. But from the 2d century the name disappears,[1] till it is found again at the end of the 5th century as that of a half Christian tribe on the northern banks of the Danube. How they got there, and what relation these Langobards bore to those who lived in the 1st and 2d centuries on the west bank of the Elbe, we learn little from the vague stories preserved by their traditions; but they are described (B. G., ii. 14, 15) by Procopius, a contemporary, as subject to one of the most ferocious of the tribes on the Danube, the Heruli, also a Teutonic tribe, by whose oppression they were driven in despair to a resistance, which ended in the utter defeat and overthrow of their tyrants. We know nothing of the way in which Christianity was introduced among them, probably only among some of their noble families; but they were Arians like their neighbours and predecessors in Italy, the Goths, and like them they brought with them into Italy a hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons; but, while the Gothic Bible of Ulfilas is partially preserved, whatever religious literature the Langobards had in the shape of versions of the Scriptures or liturgical forms has utterly perished. They were among the Teutonic tribes which were generally on good terms with the empire, and were encouraged by it in their wars with their more barbarous neighbours. After defeating the Heruli and destroying their tribal organization, the Langobards attacked the Gepidæ with equal success, scattering the tribe or incorporating its survivors in their own host. They thus became the most formidable of the Teutonic tribes of the Danube. They had alliances with the distant Saxons, probably a kindred stock, and with the Hunnish Avars of the Danube. Their kings belonged to a royal line, and made marriages with the kings of the Franks and the other German nations. Their wars led them westwards, and for forty years they are said to have occupied Pannonia, the region between the Danube and the valleys of the Drave and Save. Thus following the line of movement of the Goths, they resolved at last to strike for
- ↑ Except in the Anglo-Saxon Traveller's Song, of probably between 375-435; see Guest's English Rhythms, 2, 77, 83, 87.
