112 air. These facts add not a little to the difficulties to be overcome by the energetic observers and investigators who are trying to deduce order out of an apparent chaos. Meteorites. The fragments which fall immediately after the disappearance of large meteors have been carefully collected and preserved in mineralogical museums, and have been studied with special interest. The largest collections in Europe are in Vienna, Paris, London, and Berlin, some of these representing over three hundred localities. In the United States there are large collections at New Haven, Amherst, and Louisville. In several respects these fragments differ at first sight from terrestrial rocks. They are when found almost always covered in part or entirely with a very thin black crust, generally less than Jg- of an inch in thickness. This crust may have a bright lustrous surface, or it may be of a lustreless black. It has evidently been melted, yet so rapidly as not to change in the least the parts of the stone immediately adjacent. Streaks showing the flow of the melted matter are often seen on the surface. Upon some surfaces are what appear to be deposits of the melted matter that has flowed off from the others. Some surfaces are only browned, showing an apparently recent fracture, and some cracks are found in stones which are not yet completely broken in two. The surfaces very often have small cup-like cavities, sometimes several inches in diameter, sometimes like deep imprints in a plastic mass made by the ends of the fingers, and sometimes still smaller. These " cupules " have not only various sizes in different stones, but even in the same stone differ considerably from one surface to another. They appear in meteorites that are almost exclusively iron, as well as in those mainly destitute of that metal, and they may be regarded as a characteristic of meteorites. The meteorites have usually metallic iron as one of their component parts. Native iron is very rare indeed among terrestrial minerals, and its presence in the meteorites is therefore characteristic. Sometimes the iron forms the principal part of the body, giving it the appearance of a mass of that metal. Sometimes it forms only a connected framework which is filled in with mineral matter. Some times particles of iron are scattered through a stony mass ; and a few meteorites are said to be destitute of metallic iron altogether. The metallic iron is always accompanied with nickel. The stony meteors when broken or cut through have usually a greyish interior, and often exhibit a peculiar globular structure. From the small rounded grains that give it this appearance, the name chondrite (from ^ovSpo?, a ball) has been applied to this kind of meteorite. Some times the irregular fragments are compacted into a kind of breccia. The pieces as we find them are always apparent frag ments of some larger mass, and there is no structural appearance which would indicate that the mass might not be a fragment of a still larger one. In some of the falls fragments picked up at a distance of miles from each other fit together in their simply browned surfaces, showing that they were true fragments recently separated. In some cases surfaces of the stones are partially polished. In some a cross section of the stone exhibits thin black lines as though the melted matter of the surface had been forced into the crevices of the partially broken stone. The stones when seen to fall, if at once picked up, are usually too warm to be taken in the hand. But cases are on record in which the stones were excessively cold. They sometimes, on striking the ground, penetrate into it from 1 to 3 feet. In extreme cases large ones have struck much deeper into soft earth. Sometimes they are broken to pieces by the impact with the hard earth. The stones are usually not very large. Although the light of the meteor is such as sometimes to be seen over a region 1000 miles in diameter, and the detonation gives phenomena suggestive of an earthquake over many counties, yet a stone exceeding 100 H) is quite exceptional in our col lections. The total weight secured at any fall has rarely if ever amounted to a thousand pounds. The average weight of nine hundred and fifty perfect specimens of the Pultusk fall in the Paris museum is 67 grammes, or less than 2J oz. One of the Hessle meteorites in the Stockholm museum weighs less than 1 grain. Many of the Emmet county mete orites (May 10, 1879) are not much larger, though the largest specimen of that fall weighs nearly 500 Ib. Meteors traversing the Atmosphere. We can now get a very good idea of the history of that part of a meteorite s life between its entrance into the air and its arrival at the earth. It is entirely invisible until it has reached that height at which the density of the air is enough to create con siderable resistance. Up to that time it moves almost exclusively in obedience to the sun s attraction. The earth s attraction may be neglected, especially during the passage through the air. Since the velocity is a hundred times that of sound, the elasticity of the air is impotent to remove it from in front of the meteorite, or to prevent a high degree of condensation. Perhaps the air is liquefied immediately in front of the stone. Heat is developed in it enormously, and the stone being pressed closely against the hot air is melted, with an intense light. The condensed air charged with the melted matter is pushed aside, and left behind nearly in the wake of the meteor to form the train. The brightness of the train rapidly diminishes behind the meteor, so that the light of the meteor and the train, modi fied by irradiation, make the whole appear to a distant eye of the shape of a pear or candle-flame. The stone being a poor conductor of heat, and itself rigid, is not heated in the interior either by condensation or conduction, and may reach the ground with its surface only heated, while the interior is as cold as it had been out in space. If the stone is a small one it will soon be used up by this intense fire. Until its front surface is rounded by the flame, the irregular resistances may cause such a stone to glance. But if the stone is larger it will lose velocity less rapidly. As it comes down into the region where the air is more dense, it will in spite of loss of velocity meet greater resistance. The air pressed hard against it burns it un equally, forming cupules over its surface. The pressure of the air cracks the stone, perhaps scaling off small frag ments, perhaps breaking it into pieces of more uniform size. In the latter case the condensed air in front of the meteor being suddenly relieved will expand, giving the terrific explosion which accompanies such breaking up. In either case a fragment may have still velocity enough to burn on for an instant in its new path and then come invisibly to the earth, covered with a coating, the greater part obtained after the principal explosion. In the latter part of the course the original velocity has almost all dis appeared, so that the sound travels faster than the meteor. The air s resistance exceeds the earth s attraction, and the stones strike the ground only with the force of a spent cannon ball. It is no doubt in violent disruption that some of the fractures are made in such a way as to give the rubbed and polished surfaces. Trains of Meteors. The smaller meteors generally have no perceptible train. Only in exceptional cases do the trains of ordinary shooting stars remain visible longer than a fraction of a second. An unusual number of the Leonids have a bluish train. But the brighter shooting stars and the larger meteors sometimes have trains that endure for minutes, and in extreme cases for an hour. Such trains
are at first long narrow lines of light, though much shorter