PALESTINE 173 definite boundaries, and consequently the abode of nomadic herdsmen. The Jordan valley having already been described in a separate article (vol. xiii. p. 746), we may pass at once to a brief sketch of the physical character of the country east of Jordan (compare also the article GILEAD, vol. x. p. 594). This is a more difficult task for several reasons : first, no connected series of investigations and measure ments has been made in this region; and, secondly, as the ideal demarcation of the book of Joshua is a hardly sufficient basis on which to build, and the information about the actual state of matters supplied by other ancient sources is insufficient, it is impossible to determine the limits of the country as far as it was occupied by the Israelites. In the opinion of the present writer, the plain of BASHAN (q.v.) can hardly be assigned to Palestine. To the south of the Yarmuk (Hieromax of the Greeks and Romans, Hebrew name unknown), which falls into the Jordan below the Lake of Tiberias, begins the Cretaceous formation ; only in the east of the country the basalt of the Hauran territory stretches farther south. Ascending from the Yarmuk, we first of all reach a mountainous district of moderate elevation (about 2000 feet) rising towards the south; this is Jebel Ajhin; which abounds in caves, and, according to recent explorers, is extremely well watered and of great fertility the whole surface being covered with pasture such as not even Galilee can show. East wards are massive ridges as much as 4000 feet in height -Jebel Kafkafa and especially Marad separating this territory from the waterless desert lying at no great depth below. The plateau stretches away to the south of the deep gorge of the perennial Zerka (Jabbok), and reaches a considerable height in Jebel Jil ad (Gilead in the stricter sense). The landmark of the region is Jebel Osha, to the north of Es-Salt, so-called from the traditional tomb of Hosea. From the deep-sunk Jordan valley the mountains rise grandly in terraces, partly abrupt and rocky ; and, while fig trees and vines flourish down in the lower levels, valonia oaks, Laurus Pinus, cedars, and arbutus grow on the declivities. Owing to its perennial springs, the interior terrace of the country, Mishor, is a splendid pasture land, famous as such in ancient times ; and abundance of wood and water renders this whole middle region of the trans- Jordan country one of the most luxuriant and beautiful in Palestine. Only a few individual summits, such as Jebel Neba (Mount Nebo), are noticeable in the ridges that descend to the Jordan valley. The country from the Zerka southward to the Mojib (Arnon) is now known as El Belka ; and beyond that begins the land of Moab proper, which also consists of a steep mountain-wall through which deep gorges cut their way to the plain, and behind this of a plateau poorly watered but dotted over with ancient ruins. In this district, too, there are a few individual summits. And here also a mountain-wall separates the plain from the eastern desert; and the mountain district continues farther south along the Araba (rf. IDUMEA, vol. xii. p. 699). Water. Palestine is not exceptionally deficient in water. Perennial streams, indeed, are scarce, and were so in antiquity ; but except in certain districts, as the desert of Judah, the country is not badly supplied with springs. In keeping with the structure of the rocks, these usually break out at the junction of the hard and soft strata. Thus abundant springs of good water occur on the very summit of the cis-Jordan country, as, for example, near Hebron, at Nabulus, and in Galilee ; and, though few are found in the immediate neighbourhood of Jerusalem, more than forty may be counted within a radius of 15 to 20 miles round the city. There is no water in the low hilly country behind the coast region; and, though in its northern portion some fairly large streams take their rise, the same is true of the coast-region itself, Rising as they do at the foot of a great mountain range, the most abundant springs in Palestine are those of the Jordan, especially those near Banias and Tell-el-Kadi. The mountains of Gilead are rich in excellent water. A considerable number of hot springs occur throughout the country, especially in and near the Jordan valley; they were used in ancient times for curative purposes, and might still be so used. The water of the bath of El-Hammam, about 2 miles south of Tiberias, has a temperature of 137 Fahr., and the spring near the Zerka Ma in, formerly known as Callirrhoe, as much as 142 Fahr. Hot sulphur springs also occur on the west coast of the Dead Sea. Many of the springs in Palestine are slightly brackish. From the earliest times cisterns have naturally played a great part in the country ; they are found everywhere in great numbers. Generally they consist of reservoirs of masonry widening out downwards, with a narrow opening above often covered with heavy stones. Open reservoirs were also constructed to collect rain and spring water. Such reservoirs (pools ; Arab., birka ; Hebrew, berekha) are especially numerous near Jerusalem and Hebron ; the largest still extant are the three so-called Pools of Solomon, in Wadi Urtas (Artas), arranged in steps at a little distance from each other. Besides the conduits connected with this gigantic work, fine remains of aqueducts of Roman date are found near Jericho, in the ruins of many towns in the trans-Jordan country, at Sefuriye (Sepphoris) in Galilee, in ancient Csesarea, &c. Many of these aqueducts, as well as many now ruined cisterns, could be restored without much trouble, and would give a great stimulus to the fertility and cultivation of the country. Climate and Vegetation. Palestine may be considered part of the subtropical zone. At the summer solstice the sun stands 10 degrees south of the zenith ; the shortest day is thus one of ten hours, the longest of only fourteen. In a few points, as already remarked;, there is a difference between Palestine and the rest of Syria. The extensive maritime plain and the valley of the Jordan give rise to important climatic contrasts. From its vicinity to the sea the former region is naturally warmer than the highlands. The mean annual temperature is 70 Fahr., the extremes being 50 and 85. The harvest ripens two weeks earlier than among the mountains. Citrons and oranges flourish ; the palm also grows, but without fruiting ; melons are largely cultivated ; and pomegranate bushes are to be seen. Less rain falls than in the mountains. Another climatic zone consists of the highlands (from 500 to 3000 feet above the sea), which were the real home of the Israelites. The average temperature of Jerusalem, which may be taken as pretty much that of the upland as a whole, is 62, but the extremes are considerable, as the thermometer may sink several degrees below the freezing point, though frost and snow never last long. The rain fall of 20 inches is distributed over about fifty days. In this climate the vine, the fig, and the olive succeed admir ably. Even in the southernmost districts (of the Negeb), as well as throughout the whole country, there are traces of- ancient wine-growing. A large share of the oil is consumed at home, partly in the manufacture of soap. The mountain ridges in this zone are for the most part bare, but the slopes and the valleys are green, and beauty and fertility increase as we advance northwards. In regard to the climate of the third zone, see JORDAN (vol. xiii. ut sup.). The barley harvest here ends with the
- middle of April. The thermometer rarely sinks below 77,
I and goes as high as 130. The fourth zone, the elevated plateau of the trans-Jordan region, has an extreme climate.
