P A P A P Caporali. He was born in the village of La Stretta in the district of Rostino, 25th April 1725. After the hopes of the Corsicans were overthrown by the French in 1738, he accompanied his father to Naples, where he entered the military college. In an expedition against Calabrian bandits he greatly distinguished himself, and when in 1755 he returned to Corsica he had acquired so high a reputation that he was chosen generalissimo in a full assembly of the people. His refusal to accept Matra for a colleague, led the latter to take advantage of the dissatisfaction of some influential Corsicans to stir up an insurrection. With the aid of the Genoese, Matra for a time made a formidable stand, but after his death in battle Paoli turned his arms against the Genoese with such success that in 1761 they proposed terms of peace. As Paoli would consent to nothing less than the com plete independence of Corsica, the Genoese, despairing of their ability to establish a hold on the island, sold it in 1768 to France. The French effected a landing in 1769 with 22,000 men under Count Vaux, and after a stubborn and prolonged resistance Paoli was totally defeated, and, barely succeeding in cutting his way through the enemy, escaped on board an English frigate and went to England. His rule in Corsica, notwithstanding the distraction of the continual struggle to maintain its independence, had been marked by the introduction of many important reforms, such as the remodelling of the Jaws, the establishment of permanent courts, the regulation of the coinage, and the furtherance of various measures for the encouragement of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. At the instance of the duke of Grafton, prime minister of England, Paoli received from the English Government a pension of 1 200 a year. He came to be on intimate terms with Dr Samuel Johnson, to whom he was introduced by Boswell. When, after the French Revolu tion, Corsica was numbered among the departments of France, Paoli agreed to return to Corsica as lieutenant- general and governor of the department ; but, the excesses of the Convention having alienated his sympathies, he, with the help of Great Britain, organized a revolt, and in 1793 was elected generalissimo and president of the council of government at Corte. Despairing, however, of maintaining the independence of the island, he in 1795 agreed to its union with Great Britain, and on George III. being declared king returned to England, He died near London in February 1807. Clemen te, elder brother of Pasquale Paoli, also distinguished himself in the struggles of Corsica against the Genoese. Subsequently he retired to a convent at Vallambrosa, but at the end of twenty years returned to Corsica, and died there in 1793. See Boswell s Life of Johnson and his Account of Corsica, 1768; Review of the Conduct of Pascal Paoli, 1770 ; Lives of Paoli, by Arrighi (Paris, 1843), Klose (Brunswick, 1853), Bartoli (Ajaccio, 1867), and Oria (Genoa, 1869). PAOLO, FRA. See SARPI. PAOLO VERONESE. See VERONESE. PAPA, a large country-town of Hungary, in the district of Veszprim, lies on the Raab and Steinamanger Railway, 75 miles to the west of Pesth. It is the seat of a fine chateau and park of the Eszterhazy family, by whom the handsome Roman Catholic church, lined with red marble, was built in 1778. It also contains a Protestant church, a good Protestant school established about 1530, a Roman Catholic gymnasium, and three convents. A quaint one- storied edifice is shown as the house of Matthew Corvinus. The chief industries are weaving, wine-growing, and the manufacture of paper and stoneware. The population in 1880 was 14,654. PAPACY. See POPE and POPEDOM. PAPAL STATES. See STATES OF THE CHURCH. P A P E E r 1 1 HE origin and early history of paper as a writing I material are involved in much obscurity. The art of making it from fibrous matter, and, among other sub stances, from the wool of the cotton plant, reduced to a pulp, appears to have been practised by the Chinese at a very distant period. Different writers have traced it back to the 2d century B.C. But however remote its age may have been in eastern Asia, cotton paper first became available for the rest of the world at the beginning of the 8th century, when the Arabs captured Samarkand (704 A.D.), and there learnt its use. The manufacture was taken up by them in that city, and rapidly spread through all parts of their empire. From the large quantities which were produced at Damascus, it obtained one of the titles, charta Damascena, by which it was known in the Middle Ages. The extent to which it Avas adopted for literary purposes is proved by the comparatively large number of early Arabic MSS. on paper which have come down to us, dating from the 9th century. 1 1 A few of tlie earliest dated examples may be instanced. The Gharlbu l-Ifadith, a treatise on the rare and curious words in the sayings of Mohammed and his companions, written in the year 866, is probably one of the oldest paper MSS. in existence (Pal. Soc., Orient. Ser. , pi. 6). It is preserved in the University Library of Leyden. A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment of the different members of the body, of the year 960, is the oldest dated Arabic MS. on paper in the British Museum (Or. MS. 2600 ; Pal. Soc., pi. 96). The Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the Dlivdnu l-Adab, a grammatical work of 974 A.D. , of particular interest as having been written at Samarkand on paper presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal. Soc., pi. 60). Other early examples are a volume of poems written at Baghdad, 990 A.D. , now at Leipsic, and the Gospel of St Luke, 993 A.D., in the Vatican Library (Pal. With regard to the introduction of paper into Europe, it naturally first made its appearance in those countries more immediately in contact with the Oriental world. Besides receiving the names of charta and papyrus, transferred to it from the Egyptian writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant (see PAPYRUS), cotton paper was known in the Middle Ages as charta bombycina, gossypina, cuttunea, .rylina, Damascena, and serica. The last title seems to have been derived from its glossy and silken appearance. It was probably first brought into Greece through trade with Asia, and from thence transmitted to neighbouring- countries. Theophilus presbyter, writing in the 12th century (Schedula diversarum artium, i. 23), refers to it under the name of Greek parchment " tolle pergamenam Grascam, quas fit ex lana ligni." In the 10th century bambacinum was used at Rome. There is also a record of the use of paper by the empress Irene at the end of the 11 th or beginning of the 12th century, in her rules for the nuns of Constantinople. It does not appear, however, to have been very extensively used in Greece before the middle of the 13th century, for, with one doubtful excep tion, there are no extant Greek MSS. on paper which bear date prior to that period. The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by the Moors in Spain, the headquarters of the industry being Xativa, Valencia, and Toledo. But on the fall of Soc., pis. 7, 21). In the great collection of Syriac MSS. which were obtained from the Nitrian desert in Egypt, and are now in the British Museum, there are many volumes written on cotton paper of the 10th century. The two oldest dated examples, however, are not earlier than 1075 and 1084 A.D. XVIII. 28
