P A R P A R 317 tion predominates over criticism the letter of Eleaticism being here represented by Zeno, its spirit, as Plato con ceived it, by Parmenides. Not the least important of the results obtained in this dialogue is the discovery that, whereas the doctrine of the " one " and the " many " is suicidal and barren so long as the " solitary one " and the " indefinitely many " are absolutely separated (137 C sq. and 163 B 57.), it becomes consistent and fruitful as soon as a " definite plurality " is interpolated between them (142 B sq., 157 B sq., 160 B sq.). In short, Parmenides was no idealist, but Plato recognized in him, and rightly, the precursor of idealism. Bibliography. The fragments have been edited and annotated by G. G. Fiilleborn (fragments dcs Parmenides, Ziillichau, 1795), C. A. Brandis (Commentationes leaticse, Altona, 1813), S. Karsten (Phi/os. Gr&cor. Reliquiae, I., ii. , Amsterdam, 1835), F. W. A. Mullach (Aristotelis de Melis. Xenopli. et Gorg. disp. cum Eleati- corum fragm., Berlin, 1845; reprinted in the Fragmenta Philos. Greecor., Paris, 1860, i. 109-130), T. Vatke (Parmcnidis doctrina qualis fiLcrit, diss. inaug., Berlin, 1864), and H. Stein ("Die Frag- mente des Parmenides irtpl <pvffecas," in the Symbola Philologorum Bonnensium in honorem F. Ritschelii collecta, Leipsie, 1867, ii. 763- 806). The study of Karsten and Stein jointly is recommended. The well-known Historia Philosophise, Gr. et Rom. of Ritter and Preller contains all the important fragments. The extant remains have been translated into English hexameters by T. Davidson (Journal of Speculative Philosophy, St Louis, Mo., 1870, iv. 1-16), and paraphrased in English prose by W. L. Courtney (Studies in Philosophy, London, 1882, pp. 1-25). The philosophical system has been treated by several of the writers already mentioned, especially Brandis, Karsten, and Vatke, by F. Riaux (Essai sur Parmenide d Elee, Paris, 1840), and by the historians of Greek philosophy, of whom it will suffice here to men tion C. A. Brandis (Handb. d. Griechisch-Romischcn Philosophic, Berlin, 1835), G. W. F. Hegel (Vorlesungen, itbcr d. Geschichte d. Philosophic, Berlin, 1840), Ch. Renouvier (Manuel de Philosophic Ancienne, Paris, 1844), L. Striimpell (Gesch. d. theorctischcn Philo- sophie d. Griechen, Leipsic, 1854), J. F. Ferrier (Lectures on Greek Philosophy, Edinburgh, 1866), J. E. Erdmann (Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Philosophic, 2d ed. , Berlin, 1869), A. Schwegler (Gesch. d. Griech. Philos., 2d ed., Tubingen, 1870), F. Ueberw eg (Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Philosophic, 4th ed., Berlin, 1871 ; English translation, 3d ed., London, 1880), E. Zeller (Die Philosophic d. Griechen, 4th ed., Leipsic, 1876 ; English translation, Presocratic Philosophy, London, 1881). On the cosmology, see A. B. Krische (Die theolo- gischcn Lehren d. Griechischcn Denker, Gottingen, 1840, pp. 97- 116). On the relations of Eleaticism and Platonism, see W. H. Thompson, "On the Genuineness of Plato s Sophist," in Jour, of Philol., viii. 303 sq. (H. JA.) PARMENIO (LTap/Aevuov), a distinguished Macedonian general, born about 400 B.C., was the son of Philotas, and first appears in history as a favourite counsellor of Philip, in the course of whose reign he obtained a great victory over the Illyrians (356 B.C.), successfully upheld, at the head of an army, the Macedonian influence in Eubcea (342), and was appointed one of the commanders of the force that was sent to secure a footing in Asia, and to prepare for the future reduction of that country (336 B.C.). His influence became still greater in the succeeding reign ; at Alexander s council table he was always heard with deference, and in the field he was virtually second in command. He led the left wing of the army in the battles of the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela ; and, while the king himself continued the pursuit of Darius into the wastes of Parthia and Hyrcania, Parmenio Avas entrusted with the task of completing the conquest of Media. Here he was stabbed by Oleander at the instance of the king, in 330, under circumstances which have been elsewhere described (see ALEXANDER, vol. i. p. 483). PARMIGIANO (1504-1540). The name of this cele brated painter of the Lombard school was, in full, Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzuoli, or Mazzola he dropped the name Girolamo, and was only known as Francesco. He has been more commonly named II Parmigiano (or its diminutive, II Parmigianino), from his native city, Parma. Francesco, born on llth January 1504, was the son of a painter. Losing his father in early childhood, he was brought up by two uncles, also painters, Michele and Pier-Ilario Mazzola. His faculty for the art developed at a very boyish age, and he addicted himself to the style of Correggio, who visited Parma in 1519. He did not, how ever, become an imitator of Correggio ; his style in its maturity may be regarded as a fusion of Correggio with Raphael and Giulio Romano, and thus fairly original. Even at the age of fourteen (Vasari says sixteen) he had painted a Baptism of Christ, surprisingly mature. Before the .age of nineteen, when he migrated to Rome, he had covered with frescos seven chapels in the church of S. Giovanni Evangelista, Parma. Prior to starting for the city of the popes in 1523, he deemed it expedient to execute some specimen pictures. One of these was a portrait of himself as seen in a convex mirror, with all the details of divergent perspective, &c., wonderfully exact, a work which, both from this curiosity of treatment and from the beauty of the sitter for Parmigiano was then " more like an angel than a man " could not fail to attract. Arrived in Rome, he presented his specimen pictures to the pope, Clement VII., who gladly and admiringly accepted them, and assigned to the youthful genius the painting of the Sala de Pontefici, the ceilings of which had been already decorated by Giovanni da Udine. Patrons were willing to regard him as a second Raphael for art and for sweetness of manner, and he was almost as skilful at lute-playing as at painting but, while fortune was winning him with her most insinuating smiles, the utter ruin of the sack by the Constable de Bourbon and his German and other soldiers overtook both Rome and Parmigiano. At the date of this hideous catastrophe he was engaged in painting that large picture which now figures in the London National Gallery, the Vision of St Jerome (with the Baptist pointing upward and backward to the Madonna and infant Jesus in the sky). It is said that through all the crash and peril of this barbarian irruption Parmigiano sat quietly before his vast panel, painting as if nothing had happened. A band of German soldiery burst into his apartment, breathing fire and slaughter ; but, struck with amazement at the sight, and with some reverence for art and her votary (the other events of the siege forbid us to suppose that reverence for religion had any part in it), they calmed down, and afforded the painter all the protection that he needed at the moment. Their captain, being something of a connoisseur, exacted his tribute, however a large number of designs. Rome was now no place for Parmigiano. He left with his uncle, intending apparently to return to Parma ; but, staying in Bologna, he settled down there for a while, and was induced to remain three or four years. Here he painted for the nuns of St Margaret his most celebrated altarpiece (now in the Academy of Bologna), the Madonna and Child, with Margaret and other saints. This work became the idol of the Caracci and their school Guido professing his preference for it even over the St Cecilia of Raphael. Spite of the great disaster of Rome, the life of Mazzola had hitherto been fairly prosperous- the admiration which he excited being proportionate to his charm of person and manner, and to the precocity and brilliancy (rather than depth) of his genius ; but from this time forward he became an unfortunate, and it would appear a soured and self-neglectful, man. Greatly to his chagrin, a number of his drawings were stolen by his assistant for engraving purposes, Antonio da Trento. He painted, from observa tion without sittings, a portrait of the emperor Charles V. crowned by Fame, but through some mismanagement lost the advantages which it had bidden fair to procure him. In 1531 he returned to Parma, and was commissioned to execute an extensive series of frescos in the choir of the
