PAUL 429 His body, and to drink of the cup which was the "new covenant in His blood," in remembrance of Him; it thereby "proclaimed the Lord s death till He come " (1 Cor. xi. 24-26). Possibly owing to the double sense of the word KoivtavLa, viz., "partaking," and "sharing in common, " two views seem to be mingled together in the siginficance which Paul attached to the rite. The one is that, as in "Israel after the flesh" "they which eat the sacrifices" had "communion with the altar," and as those who partook of the heathen sacrifices had "communion with demons" (i.e., with the false gods to whom the sacrifices were offered), so to those who " partook of the table of the Lord " the " cup of blessing " was " a participation in the blood of Christ " and the " bread which we break" was "a participation in the body of Christ" (1 Cor. x. 16- 21). The other view is that in thus partaking in common of the " body of Christ " the members of the community realized and con solidated their unity ; " seeing that it is one bread, we who are many are one body" (1 Cor. x. 17). Both views must be regarded in relation to his conception of the mystical union of Christ with those who were baptized into His name, and of their consequent union with one another. Literature. The literature which bears upon St Paul is so extensive that a complete account of it would be as much beyond the compass of this article as it would be bewildering to its readers. The books which are here mentioned are the more important modern books which, without being in all cases con clusive or satisfactory, will enable a student to learn the nature of the main questions which have been raised. I. LIFE : Neander, Geschichte der Pjlanzung u. Leituny der christlichen Kirche durch die Apostel (vol. i., 4th ed., Hamburg, 1847, Eng. tr. in Bohn s Standard Library) ; Baur, Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christ i (Leipsic, 1845, Eng. tr. in Theological Translation Fund Library) ; Renan, Les Apotres (Paris, 180(5), and Saint Paul (1869); Krenkel, Paulus der Apostd der Ileiden (Leipsic, 1869) ; Hausrath, Der Apostel Paulus (2d ed., Heidelberg, 1872), and art. " Paulus," in Schenkel s Bibd-Lexicon ; Straatmann, PAUL THE DEACON. See PAULUS DIACONUS. PAUL OF SAMOSATA, bishop of Antioch from about 260 A.D., is famous in church history as the author of the last attempt to replace the doctrine of the essential (phy sical) divinity of Christ by the old view of the human personality of the Redeemer. The effort was not success ful even within his own community. At an Oriental general council, held at Antioch as early as the year 264, his teaching was investigated ; but no conclusion was come to because it was alleged Paul had been cunning enough to disguise his real opinions. A second synod was equally abortive ; but at a third (probably in the year 268), after a discussion between Paul and a presbyter named Mal- chion a sophist of Antioch, and head of a scholastic institution the metropolitan was excommunicated and his successor appointed. Under the protection of Zenobia, however, Paul continued in his office for four years longer ; and the church of Antioch was split into two factions. In the year 272 the city was taken by the emperor Aurelian, who decided in person that the church- building belonged to the bishop who was in epistolary communication with the bishops of Rome and Italy. This decision of course proceeded on political considerations ; and indeed it is probable that behind the theological con troversy there had been all along a political disagreement, the opponents of Paul being enemies of Zenobia and ad herents of the Roman party. About the life of Paul we know scarcely anything. His enemies, indeed, describe him as an unspiritual prelate, an empty preacher, an arro gant man of the world, and a crafty sophist ; but this portrait must not be too readily accepted. We are told that he preferred the title of Ducenarius to that of bishop. This probably implies that he actually was a procurator ducenariiis, a civil post of considerable dignity, and we may well believe that he was very conscious of his posi tion, maintained its formalities with some pride, and used it to give effect to his peculiar views. As an accomplished theologian he strenuously opposed the old expositors, i.e., the theologians of Alexandria, and prohibited the use in public worship of all those church hymns in which the essential divinity of Christ found expression. His doctrine was no novelty, but merely a development of primitive Christian belief as represented, e.g., by Her nias, and at a later time by the so-called Alogi in Asia Paulus de Apostel van Jezus Christus (Amsterdam, 1874) ; Beyschlag, in Riehm s Ilandworterb. des bibl. Alterthums ; W. Schmidt, in Herzog s Realencykl. (2d ed.) ; and, in English, Conybeare and Howson, The Life and Epistles of St Paul ; Farrar, The Life and Work of St Paul ; Lewin, The Life and Epistles ofSt Paul. Detailed discussions of most of the important points will also be found in books upon the Acts of the Apostles ; e.g., in Overbeck s edition of De Wette s Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch (Leipsic, 1870 ; the Introduction is translated and prefixed to the translation of Zeller s. Die Apostelgeschichte in the Theolo gical Translation Fund Library) ; Wendt s edition of Meyer s Kritisch-exegetisches Handbuch (Gottingen, 1880); and K. Schmidt, Die Apostelgeschichte (vol. i., Erlangen, 1882, the best modern book on the apologetic side). II. THEOLOGY : The books which first opened up the study of St I aul s theology in distinction from that of other writers of the New Testament were Usteri s Die Entwickelung des paulinischen I^ehrbegriffs (Zurich, 1824, Oth ed. 1851), and Dahne s book with the same title (Halle, 1835). The most important books on the subject which have since appeared (in addition to some of those which have been mentioned above) are Ritschl, Die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche (2d ed., Bonn, 1857) ; Reuss, Histoire de la theologie chretienne au siecle upostolique (Strasburg, 3d ed., 1804); Holsten, Zum Evangelium des Paulus u. Petnts (Rostock, 1S68), and Das Evangelium des Paulus dargestellt (part i., Berlin, 1880) ; Pfleiderer, Der Paulinismus (Leipsic, 1873, Eng. tr. in the Theological Translation Fund Library) ; Sabatier, L aputre Paul (2d ed., Paris, 1881) ; Menegoz, Le Peche et la Redemption d a.pres S. Paul (Paris, i882) ; Ernesti, Die Ethik des Apostels Paulus (3d ed., Gottingen, 1882). English literature is singularly deficient in works on St Paul s theology, as distinguished from the philological and archaeological questions which arise out of his life and epistles ; almost the only important contributions to the subject are contained in the essays appended to Jowett s Epistles of St Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Haitians (2d ed., 1859). Further information as to the literature of the subject, and especially as to the numerous monographs and magazine-articles on special points, will be found in the books which deal with New Testament literature in general ; especially, for the older literature, Credner, Einleitung in das N. T. (Halle, 1836), and, for more recent literature, Reuss, Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften N. T. s (4th ed., Brunswick, 1874); Mangold s edition of Bleek s Einleitung in das N. T. (Berlin, 1875); Hilgenfeld, Historische- kritische Einleitung in das N. T. (Leipsic, 1875) ; Weiss, Lehrbuch der biblischen Theologie des N. T. s (3d ed., 1880, Eng. tr. in Clark s Foreign Theological Library). (E. HA.) Minor, and the Theodotians and Artemonites in Rome. Even in Syria it was not extinct at the end of the 3d century (see the Acta Archelai) ; but in the great churches of the empire especially in the West and in Egypt the Logos- Christology was already in the ascendant. And, since the previous state of things had passed from memory, it soon came to be regarded as "heresy" and "innovation" to think of Christ as most Christians had thought in the 2d century. It was chiefly Origen and his philosophical dis ciples, however, who had brought about the victory of the Logos-Christology, and discredited contrary opinions not only as unchurchly but also as unscientific. Thus the under taking of Paul was no longer in harmony Avith the times. And yet his much-abused doctrine, as is now more and more clearly perceived, deserves the highest respect, inasmuch as it is an attempt to express the significance of Christ s person without the aid of cosmology or philosophical theories. The leading outlines of his Christology are as follows. God is to be conceived as one person ; from Him, however, there proceeds eternally as force a Logos (cro</>6a), who maybe called "Son." This Logos worked in the prophets, and at last, in the highest degree and in a unique manner, in Jesus. Jesus is in His own nature a man, originating in time ; He is " from beneath." But, by means of inspiration and indwelling, the divine Logos worked upon Him " from above." A physical union is out of the question, because the Logos Himself is no "</>ixrts." To this divine endowment of Jesus corresponds His tried moral perfection. Through the unchangeableness of His mind and will He became like God ; through love He be came one with Him. For, said Paul, " the only kind of unity which can exist between two persons is that of dis position and direction of will, which comes to pass through love ; only that which results from love has value, what ever is physical is worthless." Thus during all His life the Redeemer moved steadily onward, the Father enabling Him to perform mighty works, and finally He proved His indissoluble union in love with God by His death. As the reward of victory for His love and for His work among men He has received from God the name Avhich is above every name ; God has invested Him with divine honour, so that now we may call Him "the God born of the virgin." Since Jesus was eternally foreordained by God, we may even speak of a pre-existence of Christ ; and Paul goes
