PERU 677 sical peculiarity is that the thigh, instead of being longer, is rather shorter than the leg. The whole build is admirably adapted for mountain-climbing. The policy of the Yncas was to enforce the use of their language, called by the earliest Spanish grammarian "Quichua," among all the conquered tribes. Hence its very general use throughout the mountainous part of Peru, the only differences being the survival of words in some of the districts from the language or dialect that was superseded. Quichua was the language of a people far advanced in civilization ; it was assiduously cultivated by learned men for several centuries ; not only songs but elaborate dramas and rituals were composed in it ; and it is still the language of the majority of the people of Peru. Aymara, which is a closely-allied tongue, is spoken along the shores of Lake Titicaca. The wild Indians of the montaiia, except a few tribes on the skirts of the Andes, do not belong to the Peruvian family. They are part of the great Tupi group of nations, and belong to the region of the Amazons. On the banks of the Huallaga are the Cocomas, Cholones, Panos, and Motilones ; and on the Ucayali the wild tribes of the Cashibos, Capahuanas, Remos, Amajuacas, and Mayorunas. The Conibos, Pirros, Sencis, Setebos, and Shipibos are peace ful traders. The Antis or Campas form a large and important tribe on the upper course of the Ucayali, with probably a large share of Ynca blood in their veins. The savage Indians on the tributaries of the Beni are called Chunchos. It is, however, to another family of the American race that the tribes of the Amazons mainly belong. History. Cyclopean ruins of vast edifices, apparently never com pleted, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca. Remains of a similar character are found at Huaraz in the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, Ollantay - tambo, and Huifiaque between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco. These works appear to have been erected by powerful sovereigns with unlimited command of labour, possibly with the object of giving employment to subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the taste of the conqueror. Their unfinished state seems to indicate the break-up of the Government which conceived them and which must have held sway over the whole of Peru, and the occurrence of Aymara words, especially in the names of places over the whole area, points to an Aymara origin for this lost and prehistoric empire. It is certain that for ages afterwards the country was again broken up into many sepa- Smpire rate nations and tribes. Then the most civilized and most powerful >f Yncas. people, the Yncas of Cuzco and the Yilcamayu, began slowly to build up and cement together a later and more civilized empire. This great work, which probably occupied five centuries, was just completed when the Spaniards discovered Peru. The history of Ynca civilization has yet to be written. Our knowledge even of the Spanish writers who collected information at the time of the conquest is still very incomplete. Much that is essential for a correct appreciation of this interesting subject is still inedited and in manuscript. But, to comprehend it, a knowledge is also neces sary of the people, of their country and languages. Without such qualifications for the task, the numerous traditions, customs, and beliefs cannot be understood nor assigned to the particular epochs and nationalities to which each belonged. With our existing imperfect knowledge the subject cannot be adequately treated with out a detailed and critical examination of conflicting evidence which would be foreign to the purpose of the present article. The great Ynca Huayna Ccapac died in 1527, the year when Pizarro first appeared on the coast. His consolidated empire extended from the river Ancasmayu north of Quito to the river Maule in the south of Chili. The Yncas had an elaborate system of state-worship, with a ritual, and frequently recurring festivals. History and tradition were preserved by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the sovereign and his court. Roads with post- houses at intervals were made over the wildest mountain-ranges and the bleakest deserts for hundreds of miles. A well-considered system of land-tenure and of colonization provided for the wants of all classes of the people. The administrative details of govern ment were minutely and carefully organized, and accurate statistics were kept by means of the "quipus " or system of knots. The edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their workmanship is un surpassed. The Avorld has nothing to show, in the way of stone- cutting and fitting, to equal the skill and accuracy displayed in the Ynca structures of Cuzco. As workers in metals and as potters they displayed infinite variety of design, though not of a high order, while as cultivators and engineers they in all respects excelled their European conquerors. Conquest The story of the conquest has been told by Prescott and Helps, by who give ample references to original authorities ; it will be Pizarro. sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the leading events. On 10th March 1526 the contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by Almagro and Luque, Gaspar de Espinosa supplying the funds. In 1527 Francisco Pizarro, after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of Peru at Tumbez. In the following year he went to Spain, and on 26th July 1529 the capitulation with the crown for the conquest of Peru was executed. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar with his brothers in January 1530, and landed at Tumbez in 1532. The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the sons of Huayna Ccapac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, and the victorious Atahualpa was at Caxamarca on his way from Quito to Cuzco. On 15th November 1532 Francisco Pizarro with his little army entered Caxamarca and in February 1533 his colleague Almagro arrived with reinforcements. The murder of the Ynca Atahualpa was perpetrated on 29th August 1533, and on 15th Nov ember Pizarro entered Cuzco. He allowed the rightful heir to the empire, Manco the legitimate son of Huayna Ccapac, to be solemnly crowned on 24th March 1534. Almagro then undertook an expe dition to Chili, and Pizarro founded the city of Lima on 18th January 1535. In the following year the Yncas made a brave attempt to expel the invaders, and closely besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco during February and March. But Almagro, returning from Chili, raised the siege on 18th April 1537. Immediately afterwards the dispute arose between the Pizarros and Almagro as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions. An interview took place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on 13th November 1537, which led to no result, and Alrnagro was finally defeated in the battle of Las Salinas near Cuzco on 26th April 1538. His execution followed. His adherents recognized his young half-caste son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as Almagro the Lad, as his successor. Bitterly discontented, they conspired at Lima and assassinated Pizarro on 26th June 1541. Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent out by the emperor, and on hearing of the murder of Pizarro he assumed the title of governor of Peru. On 16th September 1542 he defeated the army of Almagro the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga. The ill-fated boy was beheaded at Cuzco. Charles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in 1542. Civil " Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the inhabitants were wars, bound to pay tribute and give personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the crown on the death of the actual holder ; a fixed sum was to be assessed as tribute ; and forced personal service was for bidden. Blasco Nunez de Vela was sent out, as first viceroy of Peru, to enforce the "New Laws." Their promulgation aroused a storm among the conquerors. Gonzalo Pizarro rose in rebellion, and entered Lima on 28th October 1544. The viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated, and killed at the battle of Anaquito on 18th January 1546. The "New Laws" were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as first president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was sent out to restore order. He arrived in 1547, and on 8th April 1548 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the plain of Xaquixaguana near Cuzco. Gonzalo was executed on the field. La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas " to the loyal conquerors, which caused great discontent, and left Peru before his scheme was made public in January 1550. On 23d September 1551 Don Antonio de Mendoza arrived as second viceroy, but died at Lima in the following July. The country was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Francisco Hernandez Giron, with the object of maintaining the right of the conquerors to exact forced service from the Indians. In May 1554 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but he was hopelessly routed at Pucara on llth October 1554, captured, and on 7th December executed at Lima. Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Canete, entered Lima as third viceroy of Peru on 6th July 1555, and ruled with an iron hand for six years. He at length brought the turbulent conquerors to their knees. All the leaders in former disturbances were put on board a ship at Callao and sent to Spain. Corregidors, or governors of districts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every tur bulent person within their jurisdictions. All unemployed persons were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " encomiendas were granted to a few deserving officers. The previous anarchy was thus completely stamped out. At the same time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri Tupac, the son and successor of the Ynca Manco, and granted him a pension. He took great care to supply the natives with priests of good conduct, and pro moted measures for the establishment of schools and the founda tion of towns in the different provinces. The cultivation of wheat, vines, and olives, and European domestic animals were introduced. The next viceroy was the Conde de Nieva (1561-64). His successor, the licentiate Lope Garcia de Castro, who only had the title of governor, ruled from 1564 to 1569. From this time there was a succession of viceroys until 1824. The viceroys were chief magis trates, but they were not supreme. In legal matters they had to consult the Audiencia of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other branches of administration the Juntas de Gobierno and de Guerra. Don Francisco de Toledo, the second son of the count of Oropesa, Toledo s entered Lima as viceroy on 26th November 1569. Fearing that adminis the little court of the Ynca Tupac Amaru (who had succeeded his tratiou. brother Sayri Tupac) might become a formidable focus of rebellion, he sent troops to seize the young prince, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Yncas in the square of Cuzco in the year 1571. After a minute personal inspection of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the learned Polo de Ondegardo
