368 A K C A li hardt s Denmark in the Early Iron Age, Lond., 1866; Stephen s Old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England, Copen. and Lond., 1866-68; International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology at Copenhagen, 1868; Madsen s AfbildningeT af Danske Oldsager, Copen., 1869-76; Memoires de la Societie des Anti- quaires du Nord, 1836-76; Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, 1866-76; Atlas de 1 Archaeologie du Nord, 1857. Siocdcn. Sjoborg s Samlingar for Norden s Fornalskara, Stock holm, 1822-24; Nillson s Stone Age in Scandinavia (3d. ed.), (translated by Lubbock), Lond., 1868; Holmberg s Nordbon under Hednatiden, Stockholm, 1852; Montelius s Eemains from the Iron Age of Scandinavia, Stockholm, 1869; Antiquites Suedoises, Stockholm, 1873; La Suede Prehistorique, Paris, 1875. Norway, Urda, et Norsk Antiquarisk Tidskrift, Bergen, 18 37-47; Nicolaysen s Norske Fornlevninger, Christiania, 1866; Foreningen til Norske Mindesmaerker s Bevaring, Christiania, 1852-75; Sam- lingen af Norske Oldsager i Bergen s Museum, Bergen, 1876. Germany. Von Estoif, Heidnische Alterthiimer, Hanover, 1846; Kemble s Horre Ferales, edited by Franks, Lond., 1863; Linden- schmidt, Alterthumer unserer Heidnischen Vorzeit, Mainz, 1858-75. Belgium. Dupont, L Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre (2d ed.), Brussels, 1872; International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeo logy at Brussels, 1872. France. Boucher de Perthes, Antiquites Celtiques et Antedilu- viennes,- Paris, 1847; Cochet, La Normandie Souterraine (2d ed.) and Sepultures Gauloises, Paris, 1855; Mortillet and Cartailhac, Materiaux pour 1 Histoire Primitive et Naturelle de rHomme, Paris, 1865-76; Lartet and Christy, Reliquiae Aquitanicaj, edited by Rupert Jones, Lond., 1857-76. Spain. Antiguedades Prchistoricas de Andalusia, by Don Manuel de Gongora y Martinez. Switzerland. Keller s Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, translated by Lee, Lond., 1866; Troy oil s Habitations Lacustres, Lausanne, 1860; Bonstetten s Recueil d Antiquites Suisses, Berne, 1855, and Supplement, Lausanne, 1860; Desor and Favre, La Belle Age du Bronze Lacustre en Suisse, Neuchatel, 1874; Mitthcilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1841-76. Austria. Von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt und dv>ssen Alterthiimer, Vienna, 1868. Italy. Gastaldi, Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy, translated by Chambers, Lend., 1856. Russia. Kruse, Necrolivonica, oder Geschichte nnd Alterthiimer Liv., Esth., und Curlands, Leipsic, 1859; Macpherson, Antiquities of Kertch, Lond., 1857. Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt. See the articles under these heads in recent volumes of the Materiaux pour 1 Histoire Primitive et Naturelle de 1 Honime. India. Fergusson s Tree and Serpent "Worship, Lond., 1868; Anderson s Report on the Expedition to Western Yunan, Calcutta, 1871; Archaeological Survey of Western India, Burgess s Report, Lond., 1874. America. Stephen s Central America and Yucatan, Lond., 1842; Mayer s Mexico as it Was and Is, New York and Lond., 1844; Squier and Davis s Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, New York, 1848; Squier s Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York, 1851; Squier s Central America and Nicaragua, New York, 1853; Schoolcraft s Indian Tribes of the United States, Philadelphia, 1851-53; Bancroft s Native Races of the Pacific States of N. America (vols. iv. and v. containing their ancient Histoiy and Antiquities), Lond., 1875. The authorities on CLASSICAL^ ARCHEOLOGY are cited in the text. ARCHANGEL, a government of European Russia, lying between lat. 61 and 71 K, and long. 29 and 68 E. It is bounded on the N. by the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, on the W. by Finland and Olonetz, on the S. by Vologda, and on tho E. by the Ural Mountains. It comprehends the islands of Nova-Zembla, Waigatz, and some others. Its area is estimated at 286,739 square miles, and its population in 1867 was 275,779. The climate is for the greater part of the year intensely cold. That part of Archangel which lies within the arctic circle has a very desolate and sterile aspect, presenting little to the eye but extensive plains of sand and moss. The winter is long and severe, and even in summer the soil is frozen at a little depth below the surface. The rivers are closed in September, and scarcely thawed before July. South of the arctic circle the greater part of the country is covered with immense forests, with extensive lakes and morasses, while other parts afford excel lent pasturage. The spring is moist, with cold, frosty nights; the summer, a succession of long foggy days; the autumn moist; and the rivers are closed from October to April. The northern districts are incapable of being cultivated, and the inhabitants support themselves by fishing and the chase. In the southern districts considerable quantities of hemp and flax are raised, but grain crops are little attended to, and the bark of trees is ground with corn to eke out the scanty products of the harvest.- Potatoes are grown as far north as 65. The principal wealth of the government con sists in its immense forests, furnishing materials for ship building, which is carried on to a considerable extent. The horses and cattle are diminutive, except in the district of Kholmogory, where excellent cattle are reared. The calves are sent to the St Petersburg market, where the veal is especially prized. Gold is found in the circle of Cola, naphtha and salt in those of Kem and Pinega, and coal, or rather Lignite, in several places in Mezen. The preparation of pitch and tar is an active branch of industry; and in the districts around Archangel coarse linens are manufactured to a considerable extent, as well as cordage, mats, leather, tallow, turpentine, and potash. This government is divided into eight circles, viz. Archangel, Shenkursk, Mezen, Cola, Onega, Pinega, Kholmogory, and Kem. Its chief rivers are the Onega, Pinega, Dwina, Mezen, Petshora, and Ousa. Sulphurous springs are found in the circles of Kholmogory and Shenkursk. The population was originally Finnish, but it is now chiefly Russian, with some Samoides and Laplanders. AECHANGEL, the chief town of the Russian government of the same name, is situated at the head of the delta of the Dwina, on the right bank of the river, in lat. 64 32 8" 1ST., and long. 40 33 E. As early as the 10th century the Norsemen had commercial settlements in the district; but the modern town may be said to date from the visit paid by the English voyager, Chancelor, to the monastery of St Nicholas, whither he was driven by stress of weather in 1553. An. English factory was soon after erected there by consent of Ivan II., and in 1584 a fort was built, and a town gradually gathered round it, which received the name of Arkhangelskoi-Gorod, from a monastery dedicated to the archangel Michael. The town long remained the only seaport of Russia, and enjoyed remarkable prosperity. Czar Bom Godunoff (1598-1605) made the trade through Archangel to Moscow open to all nations, and Holland and Germany took advantage of the permission. In 1655 the exports amounted to 600,000 roubles. In 1668 the great bazaar, or " Gostinnoi-Gorod, a strong building of stone, was commenced at the command of Alexei Michaelovich, and employed the labour of thousands of Tatar prisoners for 16 years. In 1693-94 Peter the Great visited the town, which was then at the height of its prosperity; the average annual value of the exports from 1691-1700 to England alone amounting to 112,210. When, in the beginning of the 18th century the czar was establishing St Peters burg, he did all he could to divert the population and prosperity of Archangel to the new metropolis, causing many of the wealthier inhabitants to remove, and impos ing heavy taxes on the commerce. As a natural conse quence, the northern city declined. In 1762 it received the same immunities as St Petersburg, "and since that time has gradually recovered its former prosperity. It is the seat of an archbishop and of a civil and a military governor, and has one Protestant and ten Greek churches, an ecclesiastical seminary, a gymnasium, academies for navi gation and engineering, a naval hospital, and a Government
bank. The manufactures are linen, leather, canvas, cordage,