that a masculine is sometimes made feminine by the addition of uhi, and that the words for man and woman may be prefixed to nouns to express their natural gender ; there is no dual. The declension is divided into vowel and consonantal declensions, each again being subdivided into strong and weak There are seven cases, including an instrumental. The nine demonstrative pronouns are regu lated by the demonstrative letters s, t, n, the first of which expresses proximity, the second lesser, and the last greater distance. The verb has four conjugations, according to the class vowels, e, a, u, i, and four tenses, present, imperfect, aorist, and future, the last two having two forms. In its syntactical structure the old Armenian resembles most nearly the classical Greek. The best and most recent Grammars are by H. Petermann (Berlin, 1872), and M. Laucr (Vienna, 1869) ; Dictionaries by Aucher and Brand (2 vols., Venice, 1821), and by A. Calfa (Paris, 1861), which comprises also the modern dialects. A good Grammar of the modern Armenian (Western dialect) is that of E. Riggs (Constantinople, 1856). There is an essay on the dialect of Tiflis, by H. Petermann, in Abhandlungen der K. Academic der Wissensc.haften, Berlin, 1867, The best recent surveys of Armenian literature are by H. G. O. Dwight (Jour. Amer. Or. Soc., iii.) and M. Patcanian (Melanges Asiatiques, iv.) See also, by the last-mentioned writer, " Recherches sur la formation de la langue Armdnienne," in Journal Asiatique, August and
September 1870.ARMENIAN LITERATURE. With the exception of a few fragments incorporated in later writers, the pre-Christian literature of Armenia has totally perished. The early Armenians seem to have possessed a body of traditional and historical songs analogous to the Shah-nameh of Persia, the memory of which lingered long among the common people, especially in the province of Koghten. Portions of these have been preserved by Moses of Khorene, and investigated by several modern scholars (see Vebk Hmdn Hayasdani, i.e., Chants hist, et pop. de I Ancienne Armenie, J. B. Emin, Moscow, 18.50; Dulaurier, Rev. des D. Mondes, 1852, vol. xiv. ; "Etudes sur les chants hist, de 1 anc,. Armenie," in Journal Asiatique, 1852). With the introduction of Christianity a great development of literary activity took place, which chiefly expended itself, however, in transla tions from the Syriac and Greek. Armenian students were found in Athens and Byzantium, Alexandria and Rome, and sonic of them attained celebrity in their chosen pur suits. To this tendency we owe the preservation, in Armenian, of many works that have perished in their original languages. Such are the Chronicle of Eusebius, some of the works of Philo, Bardesanes, Faustus of Byzan tium, Lerubna of Edessa, &c. (see Wenrich, De auctorum Grceconim versionilms Arabicis, Armenians, <kc., Leipsic, 1842). The 5th century was one of the most flourishing periods of Armenian literature. It was then that .Miesrob accomplished that modification and development of the Armenian alphabet which has frequently procured him the honour of being regarded as its inventor (see Fr. Muller, Ucber den Ur sprung der ArmeniscJien Schrift, 1865). The Old Testament was translated from the Septuagint by Isaac or Sahak, the patriarch (critical edition, Ven. 1805). These learned men were succeeded by a number of worthy disciples, such as Esnig of Golp (Koghb), Goriun the biographer of Miesrob, and David the Invincible, a keen student of Greek philosophy, who has left us Philosophical Definitions and translations from Aristotle (see " La vie et les ouvrages de David le pliil. Armen.," by Neumann in Journal Asiatique, 1829). Yeghishe or Elisaeus wrote a very popular account of the wars of Vartan against the Persians, which has been frequently translated (Neumann, London, 1830). Moses of Khorene is one of the most important as well as best known historians of his native country. In the 6th century all connection with tho centres of Greek culture being cut off by the Persian monarchs, Armenian literature became almost extinct. In the 7th century John the Mamigonian continued Zenob s History of Daron (Taron) ; Sebeos composed a history of Heraclius ; Ananias of Shirag was the author of astrono mical works, and Theodorus and Sahak wrote upon theolo gical subjects. Among the writers of the 8th century the chief place is held by John of Osdin and Stephanus of Siunia ; and in the 9th century we find John the Catho- likos, Thomas Ardzruni, and Miesrob of Hayotz-dsor. In the 10th century, Khosrov the Great, Ghevond or Leontius the Presbyter, Gregory of Narek, Moses of Kalkand, and Stephanus Asolik (Assoghik) may be mentioned; and in the llth, Aristakes of Lastiverd, a national historian, and Matthew Yeretz (i.e., the Presbyter) of Edessa, the bio grapher of Chrysostom.
The 12th and 13th centuries form a second great period of Armenian literature, during which the influence of Syriac is again perceptible. Gregory Magistros, who introduced the Arabic system of versification into his native language, Narses of Lampron, Mekhitar Kpsh (see Journ. Asiat., 1841), John Vanacan (i.e., the Monk), Vardan the Great (Journ. Asiat., 1867), Vahram, and Sempad, are a few of the numerous writers of note. From the 14th to the 18th century there is a falling off, the most important work, perhaps, being Thomas of Medzoph s History of Timour. In the 18th century a revival took place, which was mainly due to the Mekhitarists of Venice (see Langlois, Notice siir le convent Armenien de Vile Saint-Lazare de Venise, Paris, 1863), and since then Armenian literature has acquired a development which is remarkable in the absence of national unity. Printing presses have been established in most of the cities where Armenians are numerous, the ancient writers have been published and studied, the vernacular literature has been enriched both by original productions and translations, and magazines and newspapers have been established in many of the centres of Armenian activity. The study of the Armenian language and literature by the savants of Western Europe has shared in the general development of Indo-European philology. The earlier labours of Rivola (1633), Villote, La Croze, Osgan, Villefroy, and Freret have been almost completely eclipsed by such men as Saint Martin (an Armenian by race), Dulaurier, Langlois, Bore", and Prudhomme in France ; Neve in Holland ; Emin, Patcanian, and Brosset in Russia; and Windischmann, Marie, Spiegel, Justi, Neumann, and Petermann in Germany.
See Somal s Quadro della storia let. di Arm. ; Karikin, Hist, de la, lit. Arm.; Patcanian, "Cat. de la lit. Arm.," in Melanges Asiat., vol. iv. Petersb., 1860; Neumann s Verswih, einer Gesch. der Arm. Lit. ; Alishan s Tableau succinct de I hist, et de la lit. de I Arm. , 1860 ; Haniachod s Chronological succ. of Arm. Patriarchs (in Armenian).
the Bible was undertaken in the year 410 by Miesrob, with the aid of his pupils Joannes Ecelensis and Josephus Palnensis. It appears that the patriarch Isaac first attempted, inconsequence of the Persians having destroyed all the copies of the Greek version, to make a translation from the Peshito ; that Miesrob became his coadjutor in this work ; and that they actually completed their translation from the Syriac. But when the above-named pupils, who had been sent to the ecclesiastical council at Ephesus returned, they brought with them an accurate copy of the Greek Bible. Upon this Miesrob laid aside his translation from the Peshito, and prepared to commence anew from a more authentic text. Imperfect knowledge of the Greek lan
guage, however, induced him to send his pupils to Alexan-