lect- into the lakes of North-west Mongolia, Zungaria, and Kalka. A line of elevation is continued west of the Altai to the Ural Mountains, not rising to considerable altitudes; this divides the drainage of South-west Siberia from the
great plains lying north-east of the Aral Sea.
30. The central area bounded on the north and north west by the Yablonoi Mountains and their western exten sion in the Thian-shan, on the south by the northern face of the Tibetan plateau, and on the east by the Khingan range before alluded to, forms the great desert of Central Asia, known as the Gobi. Its eastern part is nearly con terminous with South Mongolia, its western forms East Turkistan. It appears likely that no part of this great cjntral Asiatic desert is less than 2000 feet above the sea-level. The elevation of the plain about Kashgar and Yarkend is from 4000 to 6000 feet. The more northern parts of Mongolia are between 4000 and 6000 feet, and no portion of the route across the desert between the Chinese frontier and Kiakhta is below 3000 feet. The precise po sitions of the mountain ridges that traverse this central area are not properly known ; their elevation is everywhere considerable, and many points are known to exceed 10,000 or 12,000 feet.
31. In Mongolia the population is essentially nomadic, their wealth consisting in herds of horned cattle, sheep, horses, and camels. The Turki tribes, occupying Western Mongolia, are among the least civilised of human beings, and it is chiefly to their extreme barbarity and cruelty that our ignorance of Central Asia is due. The climate is very severe, with great extremes of heat and cold. The drought is very great ; rain falls rarely, and in small quantities. The surface is for the most part a hard stony desert, areas of blown sand occurring but exceptionally. There are few towns or settled villages, except along the slopes of the higher mountains, on which the rain falls more abundantly, or the melting snow supplies streams for irrigation. It is only in such situations that cultivated lands are found, and beyond them trees are hardly to be seen.
32. The portion of Asia which lies between the Arctic Ocean and the mountainous belt bounding Manchuria, Mongolia, and Turkistan on the north, is Siberia ; it is almost equal in area to the whole of Europe. It is for the most part a low-lying diluvial plain, with a nearly level or slightly undulating surface, which extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains almost to Kamchatka. Bej r ond the 125th meridian the plain is more broken by hills. The extremes of heat and cold are very great. The rainfall, though not heavy, is sufficient to maintain such vegetation as is compatible with the conditions of temperature, and the surface is often swampy or peaty. The mountain sides are commonly clothed with pine forests, and the plains with grasses or shrubs. The population is very scanty ; the cultivated tracts are comparatively small in extent, and restricted to the more settled districts. The towns are entirely Russian. The indigenous races are nomadic Mon gols, of a peaceful character, but in a very backward state of civilisation. The Ural Mountains do not exceed 2000 or 3000 feet in average altitude, the highest summits not exceeding 6000 feet, and one of the passes being as low as 1400 feet. In the southern half of the range are the chief mining districts of Russia. The Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, which traverse Siberia, are among the largest rivers in the world.
33. The southern group of the Malayan Islands, from Sumatra to Java and Timor, extends in the arc of a circle, between the 95th and 127th meridians, and from the 5th degree of N. to the 10th degree of S. lat. The central part of the group is a volcanic region, many of the volcanoes being still active, the summits frequently rising to 10,000 feet or more.
34. Sumatra, the largest of the islands, is but thinly peopled; the greater part of the surface is covered with dense forest, the cultivated area being comparatively small, confined to the low lands, and chiefly in the volcanic region near the centre of the island. Java is the most thickly peopled, best cultivated, and most advanced island of the whole Eastern Archipelago. It has attained a high degree of wealth and prosperity under the Dutch Government. The people are peaceful and industrious, and chiefly occupied with agriculture. The highest of the volcanic peaks rises to 12,000 feet above the sea. The eastern islands of this group are less productive and less advanced.
35. Borneo, the most western and the largest of the Borceo. northern group of islands which extends between the me ridians of 110 and 150 E., as far as New Guinea or Papua, is but little known. The population is small, rude, and uncivilised ; and the surface is rough and mountainous, and generally covered with forest except near the coast, to the alluvial lands on which settlers have been attracted from various surrounding countries. The highest moun tains are supposed to rise to about 10,000 feet, but the ordinary elevations seem not to exceed 4000 or 5000 feet.
36. Of Celebes less is known than of Borneo, which it resembles in condition and natural characteristics. The highest known peaks rise to 8000 feet, some of them being volcanic.
37. Papua is perhaps somewhat smaller than Borneo. It extends almost to the same meridian as the eastern coast of Australia, from the north point of which it is separated by Torres Straits. Very little is known even of its coasts. The mountains in the interior are said to rise to 20,000 feet, having the appearance of being permanently covered with snow ; the surface seems generally to be clothed with thick wood. The inhabitants are of the Negrito type, with curly or crisp and bushy hair ; those of the west coast have come more into communication with the traders of other islands, and are fairly civilised. Eastward, many of the tribes are barbarous savages, with whom it is almost im possible for foreigners to hold intercourse.
38. The Philippine islands lie between the 15th and 20th degrees of N. lat., between Borneo and southern China. The highest land does not rise to a greater height than 6000 feet ; the climate is well suited for agriculture, and the islands generally are fertile and fairly cultivated, though not coming up to the standard of Java either in wealth or population. The Spanish Government is established over the greater part of the group, though a considerable numerical proportion of the people is in some districts beyond their active control.
39. Formosa, which is situated under the northern tropic, near the coast of China, is traversed by a high range of mountains, reaching nearly 13,000 feet in elevation. On its western side, which is occupied by an immigrant Chinese population, are open and well-cultivated plains; on the east it is mountainous, and occupied by independent indigenous tribes in a less advanced state.
40. The islands of Japan lie between the 30th and 45th parallels. The whole group is traversed by a line of volcanic mountains, some of which are in activity, the highest point being about 13,000 feet above the sea. The country is well watered, fertile, and well cultivated. The people are industrious and intelligent, and show much capacity for mechanical and ornamental art. They have recently attracted special attention from the sudden efforts made by their Government to accept and introduce "Western civilisation.
