important degree by tlie proximity of large areas of land and water and mountain ranges, and by the position of such areas or ranges in relation to the direction of the earth's motion on its axis. On no portion of the globe are
the diversities of climate due to these causes more remarkable, or brought into more striking contrast, than in Asia.
51. Among the places on the globe where the temperature falls lowest are some in Northern Asia, and among those where it rises highest are some in Southern Asia. The mean temperature of the north coast of Eastern Siberia is but a few degrees above the zero of Fahrenheit; the lowest mean temperature anywhere observed is about 4 Fahr., at Melville Island, north of the American continent. The isothermals of mean annual temperature lie over Northern Asia on curves tolerably regular in their outline, having their western branches in a somewhat higher latitude than their eastern; a reduction of 1 of latitude corresponds approximately and irrespective of modifications due to elevation to a rise of Fahr., as far say as Jat. 30 N., where the mean temperature is about 75 Fahr. Further south the increase is slower, and the highest mean temperature anywhere attained in Southern Asia is not much above 82 Fahr.
52. The variations of temperature are very great in Siberia, amounting near the coast to more than 100 Fahr., between the mean of the hottest and coldest months, and to still more between the extreme temperatures of those months. In Southern Asia, and particularly near the sea, the variation between the hottest and coldest monthly means is very much less, and under the equator it is reduced to about 5. In Siberia the difference be tween the means of the hottest and coldest months is hardly anywhere less than GO Fahr. On the Sea of Aral it is 80 Fahr.; and at Astrakhan, on the Caspian, more than 50. At Tiflis it is 45. In Northern China, at Peking, it is 55, reduced to 30 at Canton, and to 20 at Manilla. In Northern India the greatest difference does not exceed 40; and it falls off to about 15 at Calcutta, and to about 10 or 12 3 at Bombay and Madras. The temperatures at the head of the Persian Gulf approximate to those of Northern India, and those of Aden to Madras. At Singapore the range is less than 5 ; and at Batavia in Java, and Galle in Ceylon, it is about the same. The extreme temperatures in Siberia may be considered to lie between 80 and 90 Fahr. for maxima, and between - 40 and 70 Fahr. for minima. The extreme of heat near the Caspian and Aral seas rises to nearly 100 Fahr., while that of cold falls to 20 Fahr., or lower. Compared with these figures, we find in Southern Asia 110 or 112 Fahr. as a maximum hardly ever exceeded. The absolute minimum in Northern India, in lat. 30, hardly goes below 32 ; at Calcutta it is about 40, though the ther mometer seldom falls to 50. At Madras it rarely falls as low as 65, or at Bombay below GO . At Singapore and Batavia the thermometer very rarely falls below 70, or rises above 90. At Aden the minimum is a few degrees below 70, the maximum not much exceeding 90.
53. These figures sufficiently indicate the main characteristics of the air temperatures of Asia. Throughout its northern portion the winter is long and of extreme severity; and even down to the circle of 35 N. lat., the minimum temperature is almost as low as zero of Fahrenheit. The summers are hot, though short in the northern latitudes, the maximum of summer heat being comparatively little less than that observed in the tropical countries further south. The moderating effect of the proximity of the ocean is felt in an important degree along the southern and eastern parts of Asia, where the land is broken up into islands or peninsulas. The great elevation above the sea level of the central part of Asia, and of the table-lands of Afghanistan and Persia, tends to exaggerate the winter cold ; while the sterility of the surface, due to the small rain-fall over the same region, operates powerfully in the opposite direction in increasing the summer heat. In the summer a great accumulation of solar heat takes place on the dry surface soil, from which it cannot be released up wards by evaporation, as might be the case were the soil moist or covered with vegetation, nor can it be readily conveyed away downwards as happens on the ocean. In the winter similar consequences ensue, in a negative direction, from the prolonged loss of heat by radiation in the long and clear nights an effect which is intensified where-ever the surface is covered with snow, or the air little charged with vapour. In illustration of the very slow diffusion of heat in the solid crust of the earth, and as affording a further indication of the climate of Northern Asia, reference may here be made to the frozen soil of Siberia, in the vicinity of Yakutsk. In this region the earth is frozen permanently to a depth of more than 380 feet, at which the temperature is still 5 or G Fahr. below the freezing point of water, the summer heat merely thawing the surface to a depth of about 3 feet. At a depth of 50 feet the temperature is about 15 Fahr. below the freezing point. Under such conditions of the soil, the land, nevertheless, produces crops of wheat and other grain from fifteen to forty fold.
54. The very high summer temperatures of the area north of the tropic of Cancer are sufficiently accounted for, when compared to those observed south of the tropic, by the increased length of the day in the higher latitude, which more than compensates for the loss of heat due to the smaller midday altitude of the sun. The difference be tween the heating power of the sun s rays at noon on the 21st June, in latitude 20 and in latitude 45, is only about 2 per cent; while the accumulated heat received during the day, which is lengthened to 15 J hours in the higher latitude, is greater by about 11 per cent, than in the lower latitude, where the day consists only of 13¼ hours.
55. Although the foregoing account of the temperatures of Asia supplies the main outline of the observed phenomena, a very important modifying cause, of which more will be said hereafter, comes into operation over the whole of the tropical region, namely, the periodical summer rains. These tend very greatly to arrest the increase of the summer heat over the area where they prevail, and other wise give it altogether peculiar characteristics.
56. The great summer heat, by expanding the air upwards, disturbs the level of the planes of equal pressure, and causes an outflow of the upper strata from the heated area. air The winter cold produces an effect of just an opposite nature, and causes an accumulation of air over the cold area. The diminution of barometric pressure which takes place all over Asia during the summer months, and the increase in the winter, are hence, no doubt, the results of the alternate heating and cooling of the air over the continent.
subject, however, to certain modifications of direction, arising from the absolute motion of the whole body of the air due to the revolution of the earth on its axis from west to east. At the equator, where the velocity of revolution is about 1037 miles per hour, what is called calm air is in absolute motion from west to east with that velocity. If such air were impelled by any disturbance of pressure, from the equator northward, it would advance gradually to places having a less and less velocity of rotation, so that
at lat. 15 N. the earth would be only moving with a