104 S I X S K A rewarded men of learning, and, above all, immortalized himself as the second founder of the Vatican library. It has been said that the stones alone inscribed with his name would serve to erect a considerable edifice. These great works, however, were not accomplished without grievous taxation and questionable methods of raising money ; and Sixtus's successor expressed the general con- demnation of his government when he declared that he for his part would imitate the example of Paul II. Sixtus was succeeded by Innocent VIII. (K. G.) SIXTUS V. (Felice Peretti), pope from 1585 to 1590, was born 13th December 1521 at Grottamarina, in the district of Fermo, of a family said to be of Dalmatian extraction. His parents were undoubtedly in humble circumstances, but the story of his having been a swine- herd in his youth seems to be a mere legend. He entered the Franciscan order at an early age, and obtained great celebrity as a preacher. After having been successively professor at Rimini and at Siena, he became inquisitor- general in Venice (where his firmness in controversy with the Venetian Government exposed him to personal danger), theologian at the council of Trent, and ultimately vicar- general of his order. In 1565 he accompanied the papal legate to Spain, and in 1570 was created cardinal by Pius V., and entrusted with the publication of a correct edition of the works of St Ambrose, which appeared in 1579-1585. Finding himself out of favour with Pius's successor, Gregory XIII., he withdrew to a villa which he had purchased, and lived in strict retirement, affecting, it is said, to be in a precarious state of health. According to the usual story, which is probably at least exaggerated, this dissimulation greatly contributed to his unexpected elevation to the papacy on the next vacancy, 24th April 1585. If the electors had indeed anticipated a weak or ephemeral pontificate, they were grievously disappointed. Sixtus speedily proved himself one of the most vigorous popes, both in body and mind, that had ever occupied the chair of St Peter. Within two years he issued seventy- two bulls for the reform of religious orders alone. Ardent, despotic, indefatigable, he did everything by himself, rarely invited advice and still more rarely followed it, and manifested in all his actions a capacious and highly original genius, in most respects eminently practical, but swayed in some things towards the visionary and fantastic by the inevitable effects of a monastic training. His first great aim was to purge the papal dominions of the robbers who had overrun them under the weak administration of his predecessor. This salutary undertaking was effectually accomplished, not without many instances of tyranny and cruelty which have left a stain upon his name; but security of life and property returned. Sixtus's financial management seemed on a superficial view equally brilliant ; he had found the exchequer empty, and speedily accumulated an immense treasure. But this end was obtained partly by excessive taxation, partly by the sale of offices which had never before been venal; and the withdrawal of such an amount of specie from circulation impoverished the community. His intention was to amass a fund for use in special emergencies, such as a crusade or a hostile invasion, which never arose. Much, nevertheless, was expended by Sixtus in the encourage- ment of agriculture and commerce, and in public works, either of signal utility, like his supply of Rome with water, or such at least as impressed the popular imagination with his munificence, as the completion of the cupola of St Peter's, the construction of six new streets, and the eleva- tion of four Egyptian obelisks in various parts of Rome. Though a scholar, Sixtus was no humanist, and did much mischief to the monuments of antiquity, ruthlessly destroying some, and disfiguring those which he repaired by the addition of Christian attributes. In his ecclesias- tical and foreign policy good sense contended with eccen- tricity but usually obtained the uppsr hand. He thought of attacking Turkey with the alliance of Poland and Russia, of subjugating Egypt by his own forces, of making a descent into Syria and carrying off the Holy Sepulchre. But he never attempted to realize these projects, and his conduct of the affairs which imperatively required his attention evinced more moderation than could have been expected. After having strongly sided with Spain and the League, he allowed himself to be convinced by the Venetian ambassador of the evil consequences of Spanish preponderance in Italy, and showed a manifest disposition to acknowledge Henry IV. as king of France, on condition of his abjuration. This led to violent altercations with the Spanish ambassador, and the death of the pope on 27th August 1590 was attributed by many to poison, though without sufficient ground. He was succeeded by Urban VII. Sixtus V. left the reputation of a zealous and austere pope, with the pernicious qualities insepar- able from such a character in his age, of a stern and terrible but just and magnanimous temporal magistrate, of a great sovereign in an age of great sovereigns, of a man always aiming at the highest things and whose great faults were but the exaggeration of great virtues. The best view of his character and government is that given by Eanke. Leti's well-known biography is full of fables ; Tempesti is too panegyrical ; and Lorentz is little more than a compiler from the two. The most valuable part of Baron von Huebner's Sixle Quint (Paris, 1870) is the rich appendix of documents. Sixtus's note-books and drafts of letters in the Chigian library, frequently referred to by Tempesti and Ranke, were published by Cugnxmi in 1882. (R. G.) SKATE. See RAY. SKATING, as at present practised, may be defined as a, mode of progression (usually rapid) upon smooth ice, by the aid of steel blades attached to the soles of the feet. It probably originated in the far north of Europe, in Scandi- navia and Germany, where it is still in common use. In Russia it has never been a national pastime, as no smooth ice is formed in the rapidly running rivers. Even in St Petersburg it is mainly engaged in by English and Germans. The earliest skates appear to have been certain bones of large animals, but wood was also used from an early period. In modern skating there are two totally distinct styles, which require different skates differently attached to the feet, and different extents and qualities of ice. The first, the " running " or " fen " style, simply consists in going straight ahead at the highest possible speed. Its home is on the fiords of Scandinavia, the fens of Lincolnshire, and the large rivers and lakes of North America. In Holland, Denmark, and North America it is the medium for carrying a large winter market traffic. It first be- came common in England in 1662 after the return of the Stuarts. The wooden part or stock of a running"skate is from 8 to 12 inches long, according to the length of the foot. The blade is made of the best steel, with an average width of -^ inch. The heel is at right angles to the surface of the ice. The prow begins to rise off the ice at the fore end of the stock, at a gradually in- creasing angle, and projects 4 inches. The entire skate is attached to the foot by an iron screw in the heel of the stock which enters the skater's boot heel and two long straps which pass through slots in the stock and fasten round the ankle and toes of the skater. The length of the heel strap varies from 22 to 32 inches, and that of the toe strap from 15 to 23 inches. Formerly the bottoms of the blades were fluted. A concavity is now effected by grinding ; and, when in motion, the blade is rarely flat on the ice. The curve should be slight, and the depth
