V E N V E N 141 Constitution. The constitution is modelled to some extent on that of the United States. At the head of the executive is a pre sident, who is assisted by eight ministers and a federal council. The legislative authority is vested in a congress of two houses, a senate (24 members) and a chamber of deputies (52 members). The members of the chamber of deputies (one for every 35,000 in habitants, and one more for an excess of 15,000) are elected every four years directly by the electors of the states and the federal dis trict, those of the senate by the legislative bodies of the different states (three for each). The congress elects the members of the federal council, in which there is one senator and one deputy for each of the political divisions of the republic, and one deputy for the federal district. The federal council elects the president. The federal council and the president remain in office for two years. History. The coast of Venezuela was the first part of the American mainland sighted by Columbus, who, during his third voyage in 1498, entered the Gulf of Paria and sailed along the coast of the delta of the Orinoco. In the following year a mucli greater extent of coast was traced ont by Alonzo de Ojeda, who was accompanied by the more celebrated Amerigo Vespucci. In 1550 the territory was erected into the captain -general cy of Caracas, and it remained under Spanish rule till the early part of the 19th century. During this period Negro slaves were introduced ; but less attention was given by the Spaniards to this region than to other parts of Spanish America, which were known to be rich in the precious metals. In 1810 Venezuela rose against the Spanish yoke, and on 14th July in the following year the independence of the territory was proclaimed. A war ensued which lasted for upwards of ten years, and the principal events of which are described under BOLIVAR (q.v.), a native of Caracas and the leading spirit of the revolt. It vas not till 30th March 1845 that the independence of the republic vas recognized by Spain in the treaty of Madrid. At the date of the battle of Carabobo (1821), by which the power of Spain in this part of the world was broken, Venezuela formed part of the federal state of Colombia, which embraced also the present Colombia and Kcuador ; but a meeting of Venezuelan notables on 26th November 1829 declared for the separation of their country from the con federacy. Venezuela passed through the first years of its inde pendent existence with more quietness than the other members of the confederacy. In 1846 there began a series of civil wars and revolutions, which continued, with but short periods of rest, down to the close of 1870. The chief rival parties in these internal dis sensions were the Unionists and the Federalists ; the former aimed at securing a strong central Government, while the latter, who were ultimately victorious, desired to obtain a large measure of independence for separate states. It was during these troubles that the emancipation of the slaves took place, under a law of 24th March 1854. On 28th March 1864 a federal constitution was drawn up for the republic. Three years later, however, the civil war broke out again, and matters continued in an unsettled state, till in December 1870 Don Guzman Blanco, who had taken the leading part on the side of the Federalists, was declared provisional p7-esident. From that date Blanco acted as dictator till 20th February 1873, when he was elected constitutional president for four years, and it has been chiefly owing to his energy and ability that the confederacy has since proceeded on a course of orderly development. The two flourishing agricultural colonies already mentioned were founded during his first tenure of office, in 1874. The chief event in recent years has been the re-division of the territory in 1881 into the states and territories whose names are given in the table above. Bibliography. See Humboldt, Voyage aiix Regions tiquinoxiales, Paris, 1804 ; C. F. Appun, Unter den Tropen, vol. i., Jena, 1871 ; A. Codazzi, Resumen de la Geografla de Venezuela, Paris, 1841 ; Dr R. Villavicencio, La Republica de Venezueldbajo la Punta de Vista de laGeografia, &c., Caracas, 1880 ; Dr W. Sievers, " Reiseberichte aus Venezuela," in Mitteil. geogr. Gesellsch., Hamburg, 1SS4; Dr P. Jonas, " Xachrichten aus Venezuela," in Petermanris Mitteilungen, 1878 and 1879 ; British and U. S. Consular Reports, &c. ; J. M. Spence, The I-and of Bolivar, London, 2 vols., 1878. Regarding the geology, see Hermann Karsten, Geologie de I Ancienne Colombie Bolivarienne (with a geological map and eight plates), Berlin, 4to, 1886 ; and a paper on the gold mines of -Venezuela by C. Le Neve Foster, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Sc., vol. xxv., 1869. Regarding the fauna and flora, see A. Ernst, Estudios sobre la Flora y Fauna de Venezuela, Caracas, 1877, 4to. There is a map of Venezuela by A. Codazzi in four sheets, with views and statistical tables, 1876 ; and a physical and political map accom panics the Statistical A nnuary issued by the ministry of progress (Caracas, 1887). (G. G. C.) VENICE PART I. HISTORY. jin of A LTHOUGH the numerous marshy islands of the la- state. jj_ goons extending along the north-western shores of the Adriatic between Altinum and Adria are known to have been largely used from the beginning of the 5th century by the inhabitants of Venetia (compare vol. xiii. p. 447) one of the twenty-nine provinces into which Italy was divided by Constantino as temporary retreats from successive barbarian invasions, the first permanent settlement on the site of the present city of Venice the Rivo Alto (Rialto) and its numerous adjacent islets cannot with certainty be traced further back than to the beginning of the 9th century. The physical conditions with which the earliest inhabitants had to deal were such as might seem singularly unpropitious to the growth of a large and prosperous city. Their untillable and salt-encrusted soil possessed no kind of mineral wealth ; the thickets which here and there diversified the surface of the barren marshes produced no serviceable timber ; and even drinkable water was hardly obtainable ; yet it was here that the Venetians by their inventiveness, their energy, their industry, and their genius for commerce succeeded in establishing themselves on a firm soil and maintaining their independence, in making their neighbours their tributaries, in sending their fleets to distant shores, in controlling the destiny of empires, and consolidating a naval power that is unique in the his tory of the world. iritime The Venetian form of government that of an aristo- bunes. cratic republic had its first beginnings at a very early period. Originally all power had been delegated to magistrates known as tribuni maritimi or maritime tri bunes ; but in 697, in order to give greater strength to the supreme power and more unity to the popular representa- ge. tion, a doge, or duke was chosen, who had his residence in the little town of Heraclea. The first to bear this title was Paulucio Anafesto ; the assembly by which he was elected consisted of the entire body of the inhabitants, not only of the towns on the mainland, which were constantly under fear of renewed barbarian devastations, but also those of the islets of the lagoons. Although all had equal electoral privileges, there were gradations of social rank, the citizens being divided into three classes the magyiori., the mediocri, and the minori. The new arrangement lasted only forty years, when a general assembly resolved by ac clamation on the abolition of the ducal power, for which was substituted that of the maestri della milizia, whose term of office was to last only for a year. The inconveni ences of the new system, however, soon became apparent, and five years later (742) the assembly demanded the restoration of a single popular representative with life tenure, who again bore the title of doge. On this occasion the newly elected doge transferred his residence from Heraclea to Malamocco. The practical risks involved in the new experiment are obvious. In the succession of doges some were almost sure to show themselves unfit for the supreme power, others to disregard the authority of the auxiliary magistrates associated with them for purposes of control, and some even to aim at the establishment of an hereditary tyranny. Consequently the next sixty years witnessed a succession of bloody revolts, in the course of which three doges were put to death, one deposed and exiled, and several others condemned to lose their eyes. Nor was the incapacity or the ambition of individuals the sole cause of such revolutions : new circumstances as they arose sometimes compelled the doges by the very law of their existence to seek support outside the limits of the state, at one time from the Greek empire, whose frontier extended to their very doors, at another time from the Lombards, the latest invaders of Italy, who had permanently established themselves there and were daily acquiring new
influence. Foreigners who, in connexion with the interests