Caldiero (llth November). Four days later the Austrians were again attacked by the French near the village of Arcola, and after three days desperate fighting on both sides the Austrians at length retreated. Alvinzi received reinforcements, and again set out to attack the French, but suffered a severe defeat at Rivoli on 14th January 1797. A fortnight later Mantua capitulated, and the French became undisputed masters of the country. Speaking of the perseverance and patriotic spirit of the Austrians in this struggle in Italy, Sir A. Alison says, "It is impossible to contemplate without admiration the vast armies which they successively sent into the field, and the unconquerable courage with which these returned to a contest where so many thousands of their countrymen had perished before them. Had they been guided by greater or opposed by less ability they unquestionably would have been successful, and even against the soldiers of the army of Italy and the genius of Napoleon, the scales of fortune repeatedly hung equal." (History of Europe.} The Archduke Charles was now recalled from the Rhine to oppose Bonaparte. The latter set out on his journey northward on the 10th of March, with the view of crossing the Alps and so reaching Vienna. The Austrians attempted to oppose his progress at the river Tagliamento, but without success ; and a desperate struggle took place for the possession of the Col de Tarvis, which ended in favour of Napoleon, so that in twenty days after the campaign opened the army of the archduke was driven over the Julian Alps, and the victorious French army of 45,000 strong was on the northern declivity of the Alps, within 60 leagues of Vienna. Napoleon, still pressing on, took possession of Klagenfurt, and advanced as far as Judenburg on the River Mur ; but finding his position very insecure, and dangers thickening upon him, he despaired of carrying out his intention of dictating peace under the walls of Vienna. He therefore offered terms of accommodation to the Austrians, which they deemed it prudent to accept. Preliminaries were agreed to at Leoben (18th April), and a formal treatyof peace was signed at Campo Formio, 17th October 1797. By this treaty Austria ceded to France Flanders and her Italian possessions, and received in return Venice and its dependent provinces. It, however, contained certain secret articles, by one of which Austria consented to surrender the whole of the left bank of the Rhine to France ; and a convention was appointed to meet at Rastadt to provide equivalents on the right bank for the princes dispossessed on the left, and otherwise to settle the affairs of the empire. The terms were not particularly hard as regards Austria. The ceded territories contained about 3,500,000 souls, and those acquired about 3,400,000. But the taking away of the independence of Venice, which had been maintained for 1400 years, was an act of rapacity which excited the indignation of Europe, and Austria's share in it must ever remain a stain on her annals. This peace was not of long duration. As the business of a convention which met at Rastadt advanced, and the bearing of the secret articles became known, a great sensation was created in Germany. The high-handed manner in which the French conducted their negotiations, and the insolence and contempt with which they treated the empire, led to the recall of the Austrian ambassador from the convention in the beginning of 1799, and on the 13th of March France again declared war against Austria. In the meantime the latter power had entered into an alliance with England and Russia against the former. In Germany the Archduke Charles defeated Jourdan at Stockach (26th March), and in several other encounters, and drove him out of the country ; and he afterwards reconquered the whole of the western portion of Switzerland to beyond Zurich from Massena. In Italy Scherer was defeated by the Austrian general Kray at Verona and at Magnano, and then resigned the command into the hands of Moreau. The Russian army, under Suwaroff, now formed a junction with the Austrian, and the French were again beaten near Cassano (27th April). This was followed by other successes, so that in less than three months the French standards were driven back to the summit of the Alps, and the whole plain of Lombardy, with the exception of a few of its strongest fortresses, was recovered. After this the Russian general marched against Macdonald, who was advancing with a French army from Naples. - A desperate conflict took place on the banks of the Trebbia, which was maintained with consummate bravery and skill for three days (17-19 June), until victory declared for the Russians. Out of 36,000 men in the field the French lost above 12,000 in killed and wounded, and the allies nearly as many. One place after another now fell into the hands of the allies; but mutual jealousies and divisions breaking out among them, the Russian and Austrian forces were eventually separated. This led to the most disastrous results. The Russians were to prosecute the war in Switzerland, while the Austrians remained to carry it on in Italy. In the meantime another French army had been collected under General Joubert; and, on the 10th of August he was attacked by the allies at Novi. The battle was long and obstinate, but at length the allies were victorious. The French lost their general, who fell mortally wounded, besides about 1500 killed, 5500 wounded, and 3000 prisoners. The loss of the allies was 1800 killed, 5200 wounded, and 1200 prisoners. The Russian general now directed his march towards the Alps, forced the St Gotthard, and descended into the valley of the Urseren, driving the French before him with great slaughter. With great difficulty and loss he effected a passage through the horrible defile of the Shachenthal, between Altdorf and Mutten ; but, at the latter place, instead of meeting the allied troops, as he had expected, he found himself in the midst of the enemy. Before this time Massena had so beset the Russian general Korsakoff at Zurich, that he was compelled to fight, and with difficulty made his escape with the remains of his army, while the Austrian forces under Hotze had also been beaten by Soult. Nothing remained for Suwaroff but retreat, a course which he adopted with extreme reluctance, making his way with incredible resolution and perseverance over the rugged Alps into Glarus and the Grisons, and at length reaching the valley of the Rhine (10th October). Disagreements having taken place between the Austrian and Russian generals regarding their future proceedings, the latter with drew to winter quarters in Bavaria ; and soon after this the capricious czar of Russia, Paul, withdrew from the alliance and recalled his troops.
Bonaparte, who had now returned from his Egyptian 1800. campaign, made proposals for peace, which were rejected, and both sides prepared to renew the contest in 1800. A numerous and well-appointed French army was collected at Dijon, at the head of which the first consul suddenly put himself, and set out for Italy across the Great St Bernard. The passage was effected with great skill and determination in spite of every obstacle, and he arrived in Lombardy before Melas, the Austrian general there, had been informed of the expedition. On the 14th of June a great battle took place near the village of Marengo, the most obstinate and sanguinary that had up to this time been fought. Austrian army numbered 21,000 foot and 7000 hors while opposed to them was an army of 22,000 men. The battle was maintained with great spirit and obstinacy en both sides; but at length, after repeated charges, the French were compelled to give way, and the retreat be came general. At this moment, however, a fresh body of
