France, and Russia, she kept aloof. When, however, Russia invaded Turkey in 1828, Austria joined with Eng land in interfering to prevent the fall of Constantinople, and in bringing about peace. The commotions that followed the French revolution of July 1830 in different parts of Europe considerably affected Austria. This manifested itself chiefly in Lombardy, where the presence of 30,000 troops was required to maintain the imperial authority. In Parma and Modena the people suddenly rose in insurrection and expelled their rulers, and Austrian troops were employed to restore them. An in surrection also broke out in the Papal States, and the Pope invoked the aid of Austria, whose troops entered Bologna and established themselves there (January 1832). Upon this the f rench sent a force to occupy Ancona, and at one time it seemed as if France and Austria were again to cross swords on Italian soil, but this danger was at length averted. In the minor states of Germany the cry for popular insti tutions was raised, and in many cases the rulers were obliged for a time to comply with them, but after the danger appeared to pass away, Austria, acting in concert with Prussia, succeeded in bringing back the old state of things in the confederation. The Poles, tired of Russian rule, and hoping to be supported by France, took up arms to regain their independence (1831). Although Austria pro fessed a strict neutrality in the struggle, a Polish corps that was driven into her territories was disarmed and detained, while a body of Russian troops under the same circum stances was allowed to continue its operations against Poland. During the remainder of the reign of Francis I. no public event of importance occurred. He died on the 2d of March 1835, in the sixty-seventh year of his age and the forty-third of his reign. He was one of those well- meaning but weak-minded men, who unfortunately adopt the wrong means for effecting the good which they intend. He wished to make his people contented and happy, but he sought to do so by repressing all independence in thought or action, and keeping them in the most abject subjection. He earnestly strove for their advancement, but it was by strenuously endeavouring to keep things as they were, and opposing every form of change. The transition from an old to a new state of things was in his mind always asso ciated with the utmost danger, and to be by all means avoided. He did much in the way of establishing ele mentary schools throughout the country, but said that he wished to have no learned men, only good loyal citizens. He was thoroughly conscientious and correct in his con duct, but at the same time narrow-minded, suspicious, and bigoted. He was most assiduous in his attention to the business of the state, but occupied himself chiefly with small matters and minor details, while more important con cerns were entirely overlooked and neglected. His good qualities, however, commended him to the affections of his people, and this doubtless did much to repress among his subjects the insurrectionary spirit which subsequently mani fested itself. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Ferdinand I, an amiable but weak-minded prince, who left the government very much in the hands of his prime minister, Metternich. The various signs of discontent which had been manifested during the former reign soon became stronger and more marked. Baron Pillersdorf, the successor of Metternich, speaking of this period, says, "Circumstances permitted an uninterrupted enjoyment of peace, but the necessity for internal ameliorations became by so long a delay more urgent, the demand for them more sensible, whilst, owing to the procrastinations of the Government, faith and con fidence were diminished. It is true that the prosperity of the provinces generally did not decline ; on the contrary, many branches of commerce manifested an increase in their development; but in spite of this the situation of the whole empire inspired in diS erent respects serious apprehensions, arising from the disordered state of the economy of finance, the yearly augmentation of the public debt, the inefficiency of the measures adopted, and still more from the oppressed disposition of mind of the clear-sighted and intelligent classes of the population." (The Political Movement in Austria during 1848-49.) The people saw growing up in the nations around them freer institutions and more, liberal modes of government, and they could not help con trasting those with their own system. Austria, too, was made up of a number of different nationalities, and the Government attempted to strengthen its position by working upon their national prejudices and antipathies, setting race against race, and creed against creed. In particular, the German element was favoured at the expense of the other nationalities; and the Germanising measures of the Govern ment excited great discontent among the other races. It has been remarked that the aversion of Austria to the develop ment of the Slavonic element in her population was greatly owing to jealousy of Russia, which power she regarded as desirous of attaching all the Slavonic races to itself. Hence Austria has always been opposed to the encroachments of Russia in Turkey, and in favour of maintaining the integrity of the latter, so that, when war broke out in 1839 between the Sublime Porte and the Pasha of Egypt, she readily joined England in support of. the former.
The court of Vienna was first frightened from its sense. of security by an insurrection in Galicia in 1846. This, having been suppressed, Austria, in conjunction with the other two powers which had dismembered Poland, deter mined to lay hold on Cracow, and thus extinguish the last remnant of Polish independence. This step being contrary to the treaty of Vienna, was strongly remonstrated against both by England and France; but these remonstrances were unheeded, and the republic was incorporated in the Austrian empire. The French revolution of 1848, which convulsed almost the whole of continental Europe, caused the Austrian empire to totter to its foundations. Scarcely had the news Revolutioi of the fall of Louis Philippe reached Vienna when the of 1848. whole city was in a state of open rebellion (13th March). The populace, headed by the students, and forcing the magistracy along with them, made their way into the im perial palace, and loudly demanded from the emperor the dismissal of his old counsellors, and the immediate grant of a new constitution. Alarmed at these demonstrations Prince Metternich resigned, and was soon after on his way to London ; and an imperial proclamation was issued, declar ing the abolition of the censorship of the press, the estab lishment of a national guard, and the convocation of a national assembly. These measures, however, as well as the nomination of a new ministry, were far from sufficing to arrest the popular movement, encouraged and led on by the students and other members of the university. The national guard just called into being, along with the academic legion, formed themselves into a permanent com mittee, and dictated laws to the Government. On the 17th of May, Ferdinand, accompanied by the empress and the members of his family, secretly quitted the palace, and fled to Innsbruck. An attempt to dissolve the academic legion caused an outbreak on the 25th, and the streets were barricaded; but no fighting took place, for the ministers yielded to the demands of the rioters, and gave up their design. A committee of citizens, national guards, and students, which was formed for the preservation of peace and order, was legalised by the prime minister, and assumed the authority of the Government. In the mean time the revolutionary spirit was manifesting itself in other parts of the empire. In Italy the inhabitants of
