any injunctions from his superiors, to write out and send to him a treatise on the sciences which he had already asked of him when papal legate. Bacon, who in despair of being ever able to communicate his results to the world, had neglected to compose anything, and whose previous writings had been mostly scattered tracts, capitula quœdam, took fresh courage from this command of the Pope. Relying on his powerful protection, he set at naught the many obstacles thrown in his way by the jealousy of his superiors and brother friars, and despite the want of funds, instruments, materials for copying, and skilled copyists, completed in about eighteen months three large treatises, the Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium, which, with some other tracts, were despatched to the Pope by the hands of one Joannes, a young man trained and educated with great care by Bacon himself.
The composition of such extensive works in so short a time is a marvellous feat. We do not know what opinion Clement formed of them, but before his death he seems to have bestirred himself on Bacon's behalf, for in 1268 the latter was released and permitted to return to Oxford. Here he continued his labours in experimental science, and also in the composition of complete treatises. The works sent to Clement he regarded as mere preliminaries, laying down principles which were afterwards to be applied to the several sciences. The first part of an encyclopædic work probably remains to us in the Compendium Studii Philosophiæ, belonging to the year 1271. In this work Bacon makes a vehement attack upon the ignorance and vices of the clergy and monks, and generally upon the insufficiency of the existing studies. In 1278 he underwent the punishment which seems to have then been the natural consequence of outspoken opinions. His books were condemned by Jerome de Ascoli, general of the Franciscans, a gloomy bigot, who afterwards became Pope, and the unfortunate philosopher was thrown into prison, where he remained for fourteen years. During this time, it is said, he wrote the small tract De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus, but this is merely a tradition. In 1292, as appears from what is probably his latest composition, the Compendium Studii Theologiæ, he was again at liberty. The exact time of his death cannot be determined; 1294 is probably as accurate a date as can be fixed upon.
Bacon's Works.—Leland has said that it is easier to collect the leaves of the Sibyl than the titles of the works written by Roger Bacon; and though the labour has been somewhat lightened by the publications of Brewer and Charles, referred to below, it is no easy matter even now to form an accurate idea of his actual productions. His writings, so far as known to us, may be divided into two classes, those yet in manuscript and those printed. An enormous number of MSS. are known to exist in British and French libraries, and probably all have not yet been discovered. Many are transcripts of works or portions of works already published, and therefore require no notice. Of the others, several are of first-rate value for the comprehension of Bacon's philosophy, and, though extracts from them have been given by Charles, it is clear that till they have found an editor, no representation of his philosophy can be complete.[1]
The works hitherto printed (neglecting reprints) are the following:—(1.) Speculum Alchimiæ, 1541—translated into English, 1597; (2.) De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturæ, 1542—English translation, 1659; (3.) Libellus de Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus, 1590—translated as the "Cure of Old Age," 1683; (4.) Sanioris Medicinæ Magistri D. Rogeri Baconis Anglici de Arte Chymiæ Scripta, 1603—a collection of small tracts containing Excerpta de Libra Avicennæ de Anima, Breve Breviarium, Verbum Abbreviatum',[2] Secretum Secretorum, Tractatus Trium Verborum, and Speculum Secretorum; (5.) Perspectiva, 1614, which is the fifth part of the Opus Majus; (6.) Specula Mathematica, which is the fourth part of the same; (7.) Opus Majus ad Clementem IV., edited by Jebb, 1733; (8.) Opera hactenus Inedita, by J. S. Brewer, 1859, containing the Opus Tertium, Opus Minus, Compendium Studii Philosophæ, and the De Secretis Operibus Naturæ.
How these works stand related to one another can only be determined by internal evidence, and this is a somewhat hazardous method. The smaller works, which are chiefly on alchemy, are unimportant, and the dates of their composition cannot be ascertained. It is known that before the Opus Majus Bacon had already written some tracts, among which an unpublished work, Computus Naturalium, on chronology, belongs probably to the year 1263; while, if the dedication of the De Secretis Operibus be authentic, that short treatise must have been composed before 1249.
It is, however, with the Opus Majus that Bacon's real activity begins. That great work, which has been called by Whewell at once the Encyclopædia and the Organum of the 13th century, requires a much fuller notice than can here be given. As published by Jebb it consists of six parts; there should, however, be a seventh, De Morali Philosophia, frequently referred to in the Opus Tertium. Part I. (pp. 1-22), which is sometimes designated De Utilitate Scientiarum, treats of the four offendicula, or causes of error. These are, authority, custom, the opinion of the unskilled many, and the concealment of real ignorance with show or pretence of knowledge. The last error is the most dangerous, and is, in a sense, the cause of all the others. The offendicula have sometimes been looked upon as an anticipation of the more celebrated doctrine of Idola; the two classifications, however, have little in common. In the summary of this part, contained in the Opus Tertium, Bacon shows very clearly his perception of the unity of science, and the necessity of an encyclopædical treatment. "Nam omnes scientiæ sunt annexæ, et mutuis se fovent auxiliis, sicut partes ejusdem totius, quarum quælibet opus suum peragit, non solum propter se, sed pro aliis." (Op. Ined., p. 18.)
Part II. (pp. 23-43) treats of the relation between philosophy and theology. All true wisdom is contained in the Scriptures, at least implicitly; and the true end of philosophy is to rise from the imperfect knowledge of created things to a knowledge of the Creator. Ancient philosophers, who had not the Scriptures, received direct illumination from God, and only thus can the brilliant results attained by them be accounted for.
Part III. (pp. 44-57) treats of the utility of grammar, and the necessity of a true linguistic science for the adequate comprehension either of the Scriptures or of books on philosophy. The necessity of accurate acquaintance with any foreign language, and of obtaining good texts, is a subject Bacon is never weary of descanting upon. He lays down very clearly the requisites of a good translator; he should know thoroughly the language he is translating
- ↑ The more important MSS. are: (1.) The extensive work on the fundamental notions of physics, called Communia Naturalium, which is found in the Mazarin Library at Paris, in the British Museum, and in the Bodleian and University College Libraries at Oxford; (2.) On the fundamental notions of mathematics, De Communibus Mathematicæ, part of which is in the Sloane collection, part in the Bodleian; (3.) Baconis Physica, contained among the additional MSS. in the British Museum; (4.) The fragment called Quinta Pars Compendii Theologiæ, in the Brit. Mus.; (5.) the Metaphysica, in the Biblioth. Impér. at Paris; (6.) The Compendium Studii Theologiæ, in the Brit. Mus.; (7.) The logical fragments, such as the Summa Dialectices, in the Bodleian, and the glosses upon Aristotle's physics and metaphysics in the library at Amiens.
- ↑ At the close of the Verb. Abbrev. is a curious note, concluding with the words, "ipse Rogerus fuit distipulus fratris Alltrtil"
