referred to, but which may be otherwise thus put : Stand with your back to the wind, and the lowest barometer, or centre of depression, will be to your left in the northern hemisphere (in the southern hemisphere to the right) ; this rule holds universally. (2.) The force of the wind is proportional to the barometric gradient, or the quotient of the dis tance between two places stated in miles by the difference of pressure stated in inches of mercury as observed at the two places. Hence, in the Channel, where the isobarics are close together, winds are high, but in the north of Scotland, where the isobarics are far apart, winds are light. This rule also holds uni- _ versally, though the
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exact relation requires still to be worked out by observa tion. As regards the important climatic elements of tem perature and moisture, the air in the S.S.E. half of the cyclone is mild and humid, and much rain falls ; but in the other half it is cold and dry, and little rain falls. A succession of low pressures passing eastward, in a course lying to northwards of Great Britain, is the characteristic of an open winter in Great Britain ; on the other hand, if the cyclones follow a course lying to the southward, the winters are severe. This is a chief point of climatic impor tance connected with the propagation eastward of these cyclonic areas.
2. Areas of High Pressures, or Anticyclones The accom-
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panying weather chart, fig. 2, for 2-4th August 1868, represents an anticylone or region of high pressure, which overspread the greater part of Europe at that time. Here the highest pressure is in the centre of the system, and, as usually happens, the isobarics are less symmetrical than those near the centre of a cyclone. The winds, as usual in anticyclones, are light ; this, however, is the essential point of difference the winds do not flow inwards upon the centre, but outwards from the region of high pressure ; and it will be observed that in many cases they cut the isobarics at nearly right angles. Another important point of difference is in the air over the region covered by the anticyclone being, particularly in its central portion, very dry, and either clear or nearly free from clouds. Climatically, the significance of the anticyclone consists in the space covered for the time by it being, on account of its dryness and clearness, more fully under the influence of both solar and terrestrial radiation ; and consequently in winter it is accompanied with great cold, and in summer with great heat. As shown by Buchan, in reviewing the weather of north-western Europe for 1868, 1 the intense heat which prevailed in Great Britain during 2-4th August of that year was due to the high barometric pressure accompanying this anticyclone, the comparative calmness of the atmosphere, the clearness of the sky, the dryness of the air, and the strong insolation which took place under these circumstances. Thus, then, the tendency of the winds on the surface of the earth is to blow round and in upon the space where pressures are low and out of the space where pressures are high. Now, since vast volumes of air are in this way poured into the space where pressure is low, without increasing that pressure, and, on the other hand, vast volumes flow out of the space where pressure is high, without diminishing that pressure, it necessarily follows that the air poured in is not allowed to accumulate over this space, but must escape into other regions ; and also that the air which flows out from the anticyclonic region must have its place supplied by fresh accessions from above. In other words, the central space of the cyclone is occupied by a vast ascending current, which after rising to a con siderable height flows away as upper currents into sur rounding regions ; and the central space of the anticyclone is filled by a slowly descending current, which is fed from upper currents, blowing towards it from neighbouring regions. When the area of observation is made sufficiently wide, cyclones are seen to have one, or sometimes more, anticyclones in proximity to them, the better marked anticyclones having two, and sometimes more, cyclones in their vicinity. In fig. 2, a part of a cyclone in Iceland is seen, and another cyclone in the Crimea accompanied the anticyclone there figured. Hence the cyclone and the anticyclone are properly to be regarded as counterparts, belonging to one and the same great atmospheric disturb ance. From this it follows that observations of the winds cannot be conducted, and the results discussed, on the supposition that the general movement of the winds felt on the earth s surface is horizontal, it being evident that the circulation of the atmosphere is effected largely through systems of ascending and descending currents. The only satisfactory way of discussing the winds, viewed especially in their climatic relations, is that recently proposed by Ko ppen of St Petersburg, and applied by him with very fruitful results in investigating the weather of that place during 1872 and 1873. In attempting an explanation o f these phenomena, we are met with several as yet insuper able obstacles : (1.) An imperfect knowledge of the mode 1 Atlas Metiorologigue de t Olservatoire Imperial, Ann6e 1868.
D. 39.
