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candidates presented to him by the chambers. The members of each vary in number from nine to twenty-one, one-third going out annually. They present to the Govern ment or legislative chambers their views as to the best means of increasing the commercial and industrial pros perity of the country, report annually upon the state of their districts, and give useful information or direction to the provincial or civic authorities under their administra tion. There is a superior council of industry and com merce, composed of two delegates chosen annually by each of the chambers of commerce of Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Liege, Mons, and Charleroi, one elected by each of the other chambers of commerce, and a certain number of members chosen by the king, not exceeding a third of the others. The president and two vice-presidents are nominated by the king for each session. The council considers matters affect ing commerce and industry, and such questions connected

therewith as may be submitted to it by the Government.

Belgium possesses a great number of commercial and financial associations, joint-stock companies for carrying on public works or other enterprises, assurance companies, private banking companies, railway companies, &c. It has eight commercial exchanges, under the direction of Govern ment, namely, in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Mons, Termonde, and Louvain. In 1822 the General Society for the Encouragement of National Industry was formed at Brussels, under a royal charter for 27 years, which has since been extended to 1875 and 1905. It has a social capital of 15,500,000 florins, divided into shares of 500 florins each, bearing interest at 5 per cent. The administrative body consists of a governor, six directors, a secretary, and a treasurer. It discounts bills, receives money at interest, grants loans and advances on titles and other deposits, &c. The National Bank, instituted by charter granted in 1850 and renewed 1872, has its seat at Brussels, and has branches in all the provincial capitals and several other towns. Its capital is 50,000,000 francs, in shares of 1000 francs each. It pays a dividend of 5 per cent, upon the shares, and one-third at least of the profits exceeding 6 per cent, goes to form a sinking fund. The administra tion consists of a governor nominated by the king, six directors, and a council of censors. The banking operations are superintended by a Government commissary; and a report upon its state is presented to the Government every month. The state funds are deposited in this bank. The Bank of Belgium, chartered in 1835, has a capital of 50,000,000 francs. Its seat is at Brussels. The Bank of Flanders, established in Ghent, has a capital of 10,000,000 francs.

After England, there is no country in Europe where, in proportion to its extent, the roads are more numerous or better kept than in Belgium. They are of three kinds, those maintained by the state, and those by the provinces and communes. The total length of the two latter cannot be given with accuracy; that of the first is 1187 leagues.

A bill was passed in 1834 authorizing the establishment of a system of railroads, of which Malines was to form the centre, and the line from Brussels to Malines, opened May 5, 1835, was the first railway in operation on the Continent. The Government railways are wrought on account of the Government, and are under special administration. The total length of the various lines of railway in operation in 1873 was 61 G leagues (of 5000 metres), of which 125 leagues belonged to the state, and 543 were conceded to others ; of the former 117 leagues were double lines. The amount expended by Government in the construction of rail ways to the end of 1873 was 361.287,299 francs, or 14,451,491.

In 1849 a system of postage was introduced into Belgium similar to that in this country. In 1873 the total number of letters that passed through the post-office was 55,654,859 ; newspapers, 52,771,524; and packets of printed matter, 25,697,33. In 1860 the numbers were letters, 23,960,846; newspapers, 26,358,020; and book parcels, 6,668,452.

The first electric telegraph, which was that between Brussels and Antwerp, was introduced into the country in 1846 by an English company. A law passed in 1850 authorized the Government to purchase this, as also to establish telegraphs on all the lines of railway. The tele grams sent out in 1873 were 1,739,817 to different parts of the country, and 676,393 to other countries, besides 153,330 in transit.

For an account of the Belgian army and civic guard, see Army, vol. ii. p. 615.

The following table shows the annual income and expenditure for various years:—

Income. 1844 198,810,508 fr. 1850 132,877,187 1860 155,621,571 1865 169,055,072 1870 190,537,002 1871 207,705,993 1872 213,352,689 Expenditure. 195,185,657 fr. 118,730,904 159,025,377 183,793,737 216,907,800 238,191,223 251,974,513

The details of the revenue and expenditure of the last three of these years, arranged under their several heads, are as follows:—

Land tax , REVENUE. Public debt EXPENDITURE. 1870. 1S71. 1872. 1870. 1871. 1872. Francs. 19,176^009 12,174,694 4,374,797 440,020 22,057,152 29,495,085 39,633,635 3,444,497 4,114,555 41,825,031 11,839,645 1,961,882 Francs. 19,272,846 12,404,060 5,103,814 528,251 20,339,578 25,219,641 44,806,269 2,413,004 5,123,506 57,172,844 13,486,213 1,835,067 Francs. 20,253,082 13,230,057 5,509,728 572,377 18,943,388 27,024,218 49,277,477 2,555,137 4,723,594 58,428,526 10,970,612 1,859,493 Francs. 42,680,891 4,367,879 14,620,711 3,819,005 13,179,716 39,804,463 59,116,612 13,308,096 946,553 25,063,874 Francs. 47,628,453 4,366,898 14,515,530 4,277,056 14,056,431 51,032,306 44,005,577 13,545,257 839,598 43,924,117 Francs. 48,765,178 4,288,619 14.473,638 4,374,445 14,714,366 59,341,272 39,590,955 13,936,198 1,403,490 51,086,352 Personal tax Pensions . Trade licences Justice Rent of mines Foreign aifairs Custom duties. . . . Interior Excise duties . . Public works Stamp duties War Domains, Forests, &c Post-office . Finance Deficiencies & Repayments Special services Railways, &c. . . Miscellaneous Total .. Reimbursements . Total , 100,537,002 j207,705,993 213,352,689 216,907,800 238,191,223 251,974,5.] 3

The public debt of Belgium at the end of 1873 amounted to 966,920,513 francs or 38,676,820. Except the share of the old debt of the Netherlands which fell to it, most of the national debt has been incurred in the construction of railways and other works of public utility.

In the time of the Romans this portion of the Netherlands was included in Gaul, and formed part of that

division of it which was known as Gallia Bclyica. It was inhabited mostly by Celtic tribes, but there were also not

a few of German race. The latter were subsequently largely