tiuuul use of artificial means for its removal from the bel of the navigable channels. The same low coast-line con tinues along the southern boundary of the Russian steppes, to the shallow inlet which forms the estuary of the Dnies ter, and of which the mouth is nearly closed by a bar ; beyond which, towards Odessa, the coast-line is more lofty, and the waters deepen more rapidly, so that it has been possible to construct a harbour in which ships of consider able tonnage can lie securely. Between Odessa and the mouth of the Dniester the shore again becomes low, and the water shallow ; and the outlet of that river, which also receives the River Bog or Bug, is a long shallow bay bor dered by shifting sand-banks, which is called the Gulf of Lemau or the Bay of Kherson. Only ships of light draught of water can navigxte these rivers, of which the Bug is the deeper j and vessels of war, which are built and repaired at the arsenals of Kherson and Nicolaieff, are artificially floated up and down. The Crimean peninsula is separated from the mainland on the western side by the Gulf of Perekop, the northern boundary of which is formed by a narrow belt of sand that runs nearly straight for a distance of 80 miles, and was celebrated by ancient geographers as the Spo/Aos A^iAAe cos. The inner portion of this gulf is so shallow that only vessels of very light draught can make their way to Perekop, which is situated on the narrow isthmus that divides it from the Sea of Azoff. Along the western coast of the Crimea, however, the coast-line gradu ally rises, and the shore deepens more rapidly ; and at Eupatoria there is a good harbour for ships of moderate size South of Eupatoria, the coast is formed by cliffs, sometimes of considerable height ; and the water is deep almost to their base. The harbour of Sebastopol some what resembles that of Valetta in being a deep inlet, sub dividing into several branches, in any one of which the largest vessels may find good anchorage, and lie within a cable s length of the shore. Between Sebastopol and Cape Chersonese are six other bays running inland parallel to each other ; and on rounding this we arrive at the harbour of Balaclava, which is a remarkable inlet, having a very narrow entrance, and almost entirely surrounded by lofty heights. Eastward from Balaclava there commences an almost continuous chain of lofty cliffs, with mountains be hind them, whose height ranges from 4000 to 5800 feet ; the commencement of this chain is formed by Cape Aia or Tarchanskoi, probably the Parthemum of Strabo, the most remarkable headland in the Crimea. Along the whole south-east coast of the Crimean peninsula the water is deep ; but there is no good harbour between Balaclava and the Bay of Kaffa, which furnishes an excellent and sheltered anchorage for large vessels, and was formerly much fre quented when Kaffa or Theodosia (an ancient Greek colony) was a port of considerable importance. The peninsula of Kertch and the island of Taman, which separate the Sea of Azoff from the Black Sea, are for the most part low and sandy, the most elevated land in each being near the border of the Strait of Yenikale. On the western side of tins strait the town of Kertch is situated, upon what was formerly
known as the Hill of Mithridates.
TJic Sea of Azof may be considered as the wide shallow estuary of the Kiver Don, which discharges its waters into the north-eastern prolongation of the sea, sometimes distinguished as the Gulf of Taganrog ; its area is estimated at about 14,000 square miles; and its depth, which is nowhere more than 7i fathoms, diminishes near the shores to 4J fathoms, and is less than 2 fathoms opposite the town of Taganrog. These depths show a tendency to yet further diminution through the deposit of river detritus, vessels which could formerly pass up the gulf as far as Taganrog being no longer able to do so, whilst during certain winds the bottom becomes dry enough to be crossed between Taganrog and Azoff. The western portion of this basin is separated from the rest by a long narrow strip of low sandy land, enclosing what was named by the Greeks the Putrid Sea, into which, when the wind is easterly, the water of the Sea of Azoff passes through a narrow opening at the northern extremity of the bar, but which at other times consists of a series of swamps ani quagmires, equally impassable to men and animals, and giving fortli noxious exhalations that render the adjacent country nearly uninhabitable. The water of the Sea of Azoii is always less salt than that of the Black Sea; and when the Don is at its fullest, the large quantity of fresh water which is mingled with the water of the sea renders the latter nearly drinkable, and tends to empty the basin of its salt. When, on the other hand, the river brings down but little water, and tho wind is from the south, there is a considerable reflux of the more saline water out side ; and thus the average salinity of the water of the Sea of Azoff is maintained,- just as is seen to be the case on a larger scale with the Baltic. See Baltic, p. 297.
The whole of the portion of South Russia that lies between the Dnieper and the Don is an almost unbroken steppe, but very little elevated above the sea-level; and there are abundant indications of its having been at no remote period covered by salt water. For not only are there numerous salt lakes and marshes at a long distance, inland from the present coast-line, but extensive beds of sea-shells, which have become mineralized into strata of solid limestone, sometimes 30 or 40 feet in thickness. The like features prevail over the plain which lies between the Don and the Kuban, and which forms the eastern boundary of the Sea of Azoff ; this plain, inhabited by nomade Kalmucks and Cossacks, extends eastward to the desert of Astrakhan ; and as salt marshes and beds of sea-shells are found there also, it is evident not only that both the Black Sea and the Caspian extended farther north than they do at present, but that they were then in continuity with each other over the plain of South Russia, though separated towards the south by the Caucasian Highlands. It is interesting to note that Pliny expressly stated that the Tauric Chersonese was not only surrounded by the sea, but that the sea covered all that northern por tion of it which is now an alluvial level.
eastern border of the Strait of Yenikale, is for the most part an expanse of salt-marshes and lagoons, into which the River Kuban discharges itself, one portion of its water passing into the Sea of Azoff and the rest into the Black Sea. At Anapa, a little to the east, the Caucasian range comes down to the sea ; and thence around the shore of Circassia, the coast-line is high with a mountain ous back-ground, and the water rapidly deepens. As the great mountain range trends inland, however, the coast becomes lower ; and the region now termed Mingrelia, the ancient Colchis, is a fertile plain, through which run the River Rion (the ancient Phasis] having the important port of Poti at its mouth, and the Khopi, at the mouth of which is Redout Kale. Through these channels the mer chants of Tiflis export the produce of the interior, and import European goods. Passing the boundary between Russia and Turkey, the coast -line begins to trend west wards, to the outlet of the large river Chouruk (the ancient Batys), where the fortified town of Batoum is situate at the base of the northern mountain range of Asia Minor. This range extends, with occasional interruptions, along the whole southern coast of the Black Sea, sending down spurs that form headlands and promontories, some times of considerable height. Owing to the steepness of the shores, there are few good anchorages here, except in the Bay of Samsoun, which receives the River Yeshil, and the Bay of Sinope, which receives the Kizil-Irmak, at the mouths of which rivers there are plains formed by their alluvial deposit. From Cape Injeh westward to the Bos- phorus, the coast-line of Anatolia is continuously elevated, with high mountains in the back-ground, occasionally pro jecting seawards as lofty promontories, of which Cape Kerempe is the most noteworthy; numerous rivulets come
down from the mountains, and discharge themselves into