but, where it was necessary or expedient to remain together for some time, or where it was likely they might reoceupy the same ground, a more permanent camp, with a propor- tionably stronger rampart, was formed. Such an encamp ment was called " castra stativa," or a stationary camp. This, again, was distinguished as " castra sestiva," a per manent summer camp, and " castra hiberna," a permanent winter camp. Such were the camps that, in process of time, becoming surrounded by a numerous population, formed the nucleus of large towns, many of which may be recognized in England by the name- termination
" Chester " or " cester."CAMPAGNA, a town of Italy, in the province of Principato Citeriore, 19 miles east of Salerno. It stands in the centre of a mountainous district, of which it is the capital. It is the see of a bishop, and contains a cathedral and college, besides several churches and convents. Popu lation, 9813.
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, is, in the wider application of the word, an extensive plain of central Italy, almost coinciding with the ancient Latium, and, in a more restricted signification, that portion of the larger area which lies immediately round the city of Rome between the Tiber and the Anio. The circumference of the latter " might be marked," says Gregorovius, " by a series of well-known points, Civita Vecchia, Tolfa, Ronciglione, Soracte, Tivoli, Palestrina, Albano, and Ostia ; " while the former may be regarded as bounded on the N. by the Mountains of Viterbo (Sylva Ciminia), on the E. by the lower ranges of the Apennines, and on the S. and W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea. It extends about 84 miles in length from Civita Vecchia to Terracina, and has a breadth of 24 miles, its area being nearly 1400 square miles. Of distinctly volcanic formation, the surface presents a very undulating appearance, broken by deep gullies and studded with extinct craters, that now form the basins of lakes, such as those of Bolsena, Vico, and Baccano. In ancient times it seems to have been a well-peopled region, and was the seat of numerous cities ; but in the 3d and 4th centuries B.C. the Roman aristocracy turned the most of the district into huge estates, and thus led to the disappearance of the agricultural population. In the earlier period of the em pire its condition grew worse and worse, and many parts of the plain became covered with pestilential marshes. The emperors Claudius, Nerva, and Trajan turned their atten tion to the amelioration of the district, and under their example and exhortation the Roman aristocracy erected numerous villas within its boundaries, and used them at least for summer residence. With the ruin of the empire and the inroad of the barbarian hordes the desolation of the Campagna was complete : but, again, in the Middle Ages, it became dotted over with the baronial castles of the rival families of Rome the Orsini, the Colonnas, the Savelli, the Conti, and the Caetani- who ruthlessly destroyed the remains of earlier edifices to obtain materials for their own. Several of the papes, as Boniface IX., Sixtus IV., and Julius III., made unsuccessful attempts to improve the sanitaiy condition of the Campagna ; and equally fruitless in more recent times as far, at least, as the general purpose is concerned have been the efforts of Popes Pius VI. and VII., and of General Miollis, the French governor of Rome. The most healthy portions of the territory are in the north and east, embracing the slopes of the Apennines which are watered by the Teveroue and Saccho ; and the most pestilential is the stretch between the Lepini Hills and the sea. The Pontine marshes, in cluded in the latter division, were drained, according to the plan of Bolognini, by Pius VI. ; but though they have been restored to cultivation, their insalubrity is still notorious. The soil in many parts is very fertile ; and the atmosphere, which is so deadly to man, has no hurtful effect on the lower animals. In summer, indeed, the vast expanse is little better than an arid steppe ; but in the winter it furnishes abundant pasture to nocks of sheep and herds of silver-grey oxen and shaggy black horses. The land is for the most part let by the pro prietors to Mercanti di Campagna, who employ a sub ordinate class of factors (fattori) to manage their affairs on the spot. It is evident that the malaria which renders the Campagna almost uninhabitable during the summer is owing to natural causes affecting a wide area with which it is very difficult to deal, and that no merely local improve ments can have any effect. The regulation of the rivers is so defective that they annually overflow a great extent of surface , the character of the soil allows the waters to gather in fetid masses, and the heat of summer turns them into noxious vapours. The attention-of the Italian Govern ment and of General Garibaldi has recently been turned towards the systematic sanitary improvement of the district, with what results remains to be seen. The planting of the Eucalyptus ylobulus and the Helianthus annuus has been partially resorted to, especially in the district of Tre Fontani, and, it is reported, with some success.
Full details on the Campagna will be found in Westphal, Die Romischc Campagna, 1829 ; Didier, La Campagm da Mome, 1842 ; Adolph Stahr, Ein Winter in Rom, 1847-50 ; Paolo Mantovani, Descrizione gcologica clella Campagna, Romana, Turin, 1875 ; Dr Pietro Balestra, L Igiene nella Campagna, c citta di Roma, 1875 ; Augustus Hare, Days near Home, 1875. See also an article by Fr. Siebmann in Ausland for August 1875, and another by Fr. von Hellwald in the following number.
CAMPAN, Jeanne Louise Henriette (1752-1822), née Genest, was born at Paris in 1752. Carefully educated, and surrounded by the most cultivated society, at the age of fifteen she had gained so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader to the young princesses. At court she was a general favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campau, son of the secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000 livres as dowry. She was soon after appointed first lady of the bedchamber by Marie Antoinette ; and she continued to be the faithful attendant of that princess till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the Tuileries, on 20th June 1792. After this event Mine. Campan, almost penniless, and thrown on her own resources by the illness of her husband, bravely determined to support herself by establishing a school at Saint -Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by Mine. Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of Mine. Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at Ecouen, for the educa tion of the daughters and sisters of members of the Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends, but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies circulated on account of her con nection with the Bonapartes. She died in 1822, leaving interesting Memoircs sur la vie privce de Marie Antoinette, suivis de souvenirs ct anecdotes historiqucs sur les rcgncs de Louis XI V.-XV. (Paris, 1823) ; a treatise DC V Edu cation des Femmes ; and one or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style.
most brilliant and unfortunate of the Italian Renaissance philosophers, was born at Stilo in Calabria in 15G8. At a very early age he showed remarkable mental power ; his memory was uncommonly tenacious, and before he was thirteen years of age he had mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth year he entered
the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading