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CHINA
[history
number of independent states, and having attached them to his brother's crown he passed on into Tibet, Tonquin, and Cochin-China, and from thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-se. On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai ascended the throne, and never in the history of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of his reign Sung kept up a resistance, gradually growing weaker and weaker, against his authority; and it was not, therefore, until 1280 that he assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. At this time his authority was acknowledged “from the Frozen Sea, almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan, Arabia, and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his vassals, and brought regularly their tribute.” It was during this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in glowing colours the virtues and glories of the “Great Khan.” But though his rule was characterized by discretion and munificence, his Chinese subjects were uneasy under his yoke. He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved the distress of the poor, but still they never forgot that he was an alien and a barbarian, and he died unregretted in 1294. His eon had died during his lifetime, and after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne under the title of Yuen-ching. After an uneventful reign this prince was gathered to his fathers in 1307, and as he left no son, Woo-tsung, a Mongol prince, reigned in his stead. To him, succeeded Jin-tsung in 1311, who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done. This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. Three years later,—three years of disorder,—his successor, Ying-tsung, was murdered by a band of conspirators. From this time the star of the Yuen dynasty was in the descendant. Tai-ting-te, Ming-tsung, Wăn-te, and Shun-te followed one another on the throne in quick succession. Each reign was more troublous than the last, and in the person of Shun-te (1333–1368) were summed up all the vices and faults of his predecessors. Outbreaks, which up to his time had been local in their character, assumed large and threatening proportions; and finally this descendant of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly from his capital before Choo Yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers he sought refuge in Ying-chang Foo, and there the last of the Yuen dynasty died. So disunited had the empire become by constant disturbances and rebellions, that Choo Yuen-chang met with little opposition to his forces, more especially as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled government. In 1355 he crossed the Yang-tsze Keang and captured Nan-king, in consequence of which success he proclaimed himself duke of Woo, but as yet he carefully avoided adopting any of the insignia of royalty. Even when he had taken the capital and was the master of the empire thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of assuming the imperial title. His scruples, however, on this point were overcome, and he solemnly declared himself emperor in 1368. Once seated upon the throne, he ingratiated himself with his subjects by his generous treatment of his enemies, and by the regard he showed for the welfare of his people. He carried his arms into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Leaou-tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery of despair, but nothing could resist the onslaught of the victorious Chinese, and the conquest of this province left Hung-woo, as the founder of the new or Ming, “Bright,” dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire. Beyond the frontier of China he cultivated friendly relations with the rulers of the neighbouring states. The king of Corea sent an embassy to congratulate him on his accession, and the sovereign of the Lew-chew Islands sent his brothers and sons to his court to be educated. As a quondam Buddhist priest he naturally lent his countenance to that religion to the exclusion of Taouism, whose priests had for centuries earned the contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical arts and their search after the philosopher's stone. In 1398, and in the thirtieth year of his reign, Hung-woo was gathered to his fathers, and Keen-wăn his grandson reigned in his stead. Aware that the appointment of this youth—his father was dead—would give offence to the young emperor's uncles, Hung-woo dismissed them to their respective governments before death closed his eyes. This, however, only delayed the storm. The prince of Yen, his eldest surviving son, raised the banner of rebellion in his principality as soon as the news reached him of his nephew's accession, and after gaining several victories over the armies of Keen-wăn he presented himself before the gates of Nanking, the capital Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince clothed himself in imperial yellow and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts, and, possibly from a knowledge that Keen-wăn was among the Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad he swept Cochin-China and Tonquin within the folds of his empire and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. His death took place in 1425, and he was in that year succeeded by his son Hung-ke.
Hung-ke's reign was short and uneventful. He did that which was right as far his knowledge went. He strove to promote only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest, and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his successor, Seuen-tĭh (1426–1436), the empire suffered the first loss of territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China rebelled and gained her independence. But this was but the beginning of troubles. The next emperor, Ching-tung (1436) was defeated and taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant of the Yuen family named Ye-seen, who had invaded the northern provinces. With unusual clemency the Tatar gave him his life, though he kept him a close prisoner until the fortunes of war turned against him. Having been completely defeated by a Chinese force from Leaou-tung, Ye-seen liberated his captive, who returned to his capital amidst the rejoicings of the people, again to occupy the throne which during his imprisonment (1450–1457) had been held by his brother King-te. The two following reigns, those of Ching-hwa (1465–1488) and of Hung-che (1488–1506) were quiet and peaceful. But their successor Ching-tĭh (1506–1522) was called upon to face a very formidable insurrection headed by the prince of Ning. He was, however, victorious over the rebel, who lost 30,000 men in the engagement which put an end to his hopes. The disorder into which the empire had been thrown by this civil war encouraged the foreign enemies of China. First of all from the dreaded north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta in 1542, during the reign of Kea-tsing, which laid waste the province of Shen-se, and even threatened the capital, and a little later a Japanese fleet appeared off the coast and carried fire and sword through the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen between the
