many of the objections which have been urged against it, BO one can justly regard it as more than the mere starting- point of a theory. It must be followed up by a great amount of research before it can approximate to what a theory should be. But there is no reason why it should not be followed up by research in various directions, nor why it should not be made much more precise and definite than it has yet been. The relations involved in morality may be compared with those involved in pure science, in utility both personal and general, and in beauty, and ought to be, for it is only thus that what is distinctive of them can be brought clearly and completely out. More, perhaps, than any other theory on the nature of virtue, the theory of relations suggests and implies the necessity of a minute scientific inquiry into how truth, beauty, utility, and good ness are connected and distinguished. By Socrates and Wollaston truth and goodness, by Plato, Shaftesbury, and Herbart beauty and goodness, and by the selfish school and the utilitarian school of moralists, utility and goodness, have been, if not identified, too nearly so, while there have been held errors as great although directly contrary to these, separating unnaturally goodness from truth, or from beauty, or from utility ; and it lies directly in the way of those who adopt the theory of relations to institute an investiga tion into the whole subject of the connection of truth, beauty, utility, and goodness, so thorough and comprehen sive as to show what is true and what erroneous in all these views, and what are the resemblances and differences, the
identities and distinctions, in the things themselves.
As to the biography of Clarke see the Life by Bishop Hoadley, and Winston s Historical Memoirs. As to his philosophical, ethical, and theological tenets, there may be consulted Bishop Law s Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time, d-c., several works of Dr John Balguy (referred to in article Balguy), Dugald Stewart s Dissertation, Sir James Mackintosh s Dissertation, Lord Brougham s Discourse on- Natural Theology, Dr Turton s Natural Theology, "Wardlaw s Christian Ethics, Dr Chalmers s Natural T/teoloyy, and Hunt s Re ligious Thought in England, passim, but particularly in vol. ii. 447-457, and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c. The most elaborate essay on his philosophy as a whole is, perhaps, that by Prof. Zim- mermann in the Denkschriften d. k. Akademie dcr Wissenschaftcn, I hil.-Hist. Classe, Bd. xix., Vienna, 1870. It treats of English rationalism before Clarke, his life, the general character of his philo sophy, his criticism of materialism, his defence of natural religion, his discussion with Leibnitz, and his moral philosophy.
(r. f.)]
CLARKSON, Thomas (1760-1 846), was born on the 28th March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father was head-master of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul s School and at St John s College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was one in which he was himself deeply interested Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare ? (Is it right to make men slaves against their will?) In preparing for this essay Clarkson consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the chief was Benezet s Historical Survey of Neio Guinea ; and the atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church. His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English translation of his prize- essay (June 1786). He then commenced to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. He soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn, Joseph Wood, aud Granville Sharp. With the aid of these gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, Whitbread, Sturge, and several other men of influence. Travelling from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large mass of evidence ; and much of it was embodied in his Summary View of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition, which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox, and Burke looked favourably on the movement ; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained per mission from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on the 18th June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson published an Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade; and for two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount of evidence ; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to appear before the privy council Meanwhile other witnesses had been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the 12th May 1789 the former led a debate on the subject in the House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and supported by Pitt and Fox, It was now the beginning of the French Pievolution, and in the hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he re mained six months. He found Necker head of the Govern ment, and obtaiusd from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however, with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la Fayette entered enthusi astically into his views. During this visit Clarkson also met a deputation of negroes from St Domingo, who had come to France to present a petition to the National Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the whites ; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no substantial success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa ; and a friend having met by chance a man-of-war s-man who had done so, Clarkson, though ignorant both of the name and of the residence of the sailor, at once set out in search of him, and after many disappointments actually dis covered him. His last tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794, his health, which had long been impaired by his uninterrupted exertions, gave way, and he was obliged to cease active work. He did not, however, entirely give up the cause. At the sugges tion of Wilberforce and others, he occupied his time in writing a History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade, which appeared in 1808. In 1818 he had an interview at Paris with the emperor of Russia, to whom he presented an address against the negro slave trade. He again visited the emperor during the conference of the European monarchs which was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and, through him, the address was also presented to the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. In 1823, the slave trade having been abolished in 1807, the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some time blind from cataract; but several years before his death his sight was restored. He died at the age of eighty-six, at his patrimonial house, Playford Hall, Suffolk.
