acquired the name which, in a corrupted form, it still bears, of Kaupmannahofn, Kjobmannshavn, or Portus Mercatorum, as it is translated by Saxo Grammaticus. Bishop Absolon bestowed the castie and village, with the lands of Amager, on the see of Roskilde ; and Bishop Erlandsen granted the little community municipal rights and privileges, which were confirmed and augmented in 1284 bv Kinf Eric Glypping. Meanwhile its prosperity was checked by ai atturk by the people of Lu beck in 1248, and by another on the part of Prince Yarimar of Riga in 1259. In 1306 it managed to repel the Norwegians, but in 1362, and again in 1368, it was cap tured by the opponents of Valdemar Atterdag. In the following century a new enemy appeared in the Hanseatic League, which was jealous of its rivalry, but their invasion was frustrated by Queen Philippa. Various attempts were made by successive kings to obtain the town from the see of Roskilde, as the most suitable for the Royal residence ; but it was not till 1443 that the transference was effected, and Copenhagen became the capital of the kingdom. From 1523 to 1524 it held out for Christian II. against Frederick I.; and it was only after a year s siege that it yielded in 1536 to Christian III. From 1658 to 1660 it was unsuccessfully beleaguered by Charles Gustavus of Sweden ; and in the following year it was rewarded by various privileges for its gallant defence. In 1660 it gave its name to the treaty which concluded the Swedish war of Frederick III. In 1700 it was bombarded by the united fleets of England, Holland, and Sweden ; in 1728 a conflagration destroyed 1640 houses and five churches ; another in 1794 consumed the Christiansborg ; and a third in 1795 laid waste 943 houses, the church oP St Nicolas, and the Town House. In 1801 the Danish fleet was destroyed in the roadstead by the English, under Nelson ; and in 1807 the city was bombarded by the British army under Lord Cathcart, and saw the destruction of the university buildings, its principal church, and numerous other edifices. In 1853 it lost 4100 of its population from cholera.
COPERNICUS, or Koppernick, Nicolaus (1473-1543), was born on the 19th February 1473, at Thorn in Prussia, where his father, a native of Cracow, had settled as a wholesale trader. His mother, Barbel Watzelrode, was the daughter of a well-to-do merchant. The education of Nicolaus, whose father died early, was undertaken by his uncle Lukas Watzslrode, subsequently (1489) bishop of Ermeland. After a course of instruction at the school in Thorn, ha entered the university of Cracow in 1491, and during four years studied mathematical science under Albert Brudzewski, devoting his spare time to painting. At the age of twenty-throe he repaired to Bologna, and attended the lectures of Dominico Maria Novarra, professor of astronomy there. He next spent some years at Padua, where, in addition to mathematics and astronomy, he applied himself to medicine, in which, in 1499, he took tha degree of doctor. In 1500 he was at Rome, enjoying the friend ship of the astronomer Regiomontanus, and fulfilling with distinction the duties of a chair of mathematics. Copernicus had already been for some time a member of the chapter of Frauenburg, at which place he appears to have taken up his abode in 1503. His time was now engaged in clerical work, in giving gratuitous medical aid to the poor, and, though with but a slender stock of instruments, in the prosecution of his favourite studies. The house which he occupied at Allenstein is still to be seen, with the perfora tions which he made in the walls of his chamber in order to observe the passage of the stars across the meridian ; abo the remains of an hydraulic machine, similar to that at Marly, which lie constructed for the purpose of raising the water of a rivulet for the supply of Frauenburg.
By his bishop and fellow-canons Copernicus was employed in defending their rights and privileges against the encroachments of the Teutonic knights ; and when sent as a deputy to the diet of Grodno, he busied himself in con sidering the means of improving the corrupt coinage, and wrote a paper on that subject, which was placed among the archives of the diet. Copernicus sought by a comparative study of the various astronomical systems of the ancients to evolve from them a single system, at once simple and consistent. According to the hypothesis of the ancient Egyptians, Mercury and Venus revolved round the sun, which itself, with Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, moved round the earth. Apollonius of Perga chose the sun as the common centre of all the planetary motions, but held that, like the moon, it turned round about the earth. The principal Pythagorean philosophers, on the other hand, regarded the sun as the centre of the universe, about which the earth performed a circuit. Nicetas, Heraclides, and others assigned a central position to the earth, but supposed it to have a motion of rotation round its axis, which produced the phenomena of the rising and setting of the stars, and the alternations of clay and night. Philolaus removed the earth from the centre of his system, and conceived it to have not only an axial rotation, but also an independent annual revolution round the sun. From the various ill-founded and unshapely theories of his predeces sors Copernicus obtained the material for erecting a solid and imposing structure the system with which his name is connected. This was expounded in a treatise entitled De Orbium Coelestium Revolutionibus Libri VI., the preparation of which occupied its author from about 1507 to 1530. This work Copernicus long delayed bring ing before the world, being content to defer for a while the popular outcry against himself, which, as a setter-forth of truths hitherto unknown to science and as an impugncr of the rights of time-honoured dogmatism, he must be prepared to endure. At length, however, yielding to the importunities of his friends, he permitted the publication of the book, which he dedicated to Pope Paul III. ; in order, as he says, that he might not be accused of seeking to shun the judgment of enlightened men, and that the authority of his Holiness, if he approved of it, might protect him from the baleful tooth of calumny.
The work was printed at Nuremberg, under the super intendence of Rheticus, one of the disciples of Copernicus. The impression had just been completed, when Copernicus, who had all his life enjoyed perfect health, was attacked with dysentery, followed almost immediately by a paralysis of the right side, with loss of memory, and obscuration of the understanding. For some time he lingered, and on the day of his death, only a few hours before he expired, a copy of his work sent by Rheticus arrived, and was placed in his hands. He touched it, and seemed conscious what it was ; but after regarding it for an instant, he relapsed into a state of insensibility, which soon terminated in death. He died on the 24th May 1543, at the age of seventy. His tomb, which is not distinguished from that of the other canons of Frauenburg, was in 1581 adorned with a Latin epitaph by the Polish Bishop Cromer. In 1830 a statue of Copernicus, by Thorwaldsen, was placed in the Casimir Palace at Warsaw; and in 1853 another monu ment to him, by Tieck, was erected at Thorn.
The first formal exposition of the theories of Copernicus in contradistinction to the notions which had hitherto prevailed, was a letter published by Rheticus, and entitled Ad Clar. V. d. Schonerum de Libris Revolutionism cruditiss. Viri ct Mathcmatici cxcellentiss. Rev. Docloris Nicolai Copcrnici Torunnoci, Canonici Warmiensis, per quemdnm juvciicm Mathemalicce studiosum, Narralio prime. Dantzic, 1540, 4to ; reprinted, with a eulogium, at Basel, 154], 8vo. The works of Copernicus are 1. DC Rcvolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI., Nuremberg, 1543, small folio; reprinted at Basel in 1566, with the letter of Rheticus, and also included in the Astronomia, Instaurala of Nicolas Muler, Amsterdam, 1617 and 1640, 4to ; 2. A treatise on trigonometry, with tables of sines, entitled Da Latcribus ct Angulis Triangulorum, Wittenberg, 1542, 4to ; 3. Thcophylactici Sckolastici Simocattce Epistola: morales, ruralcs, d amatorice, cum versione Lcdina. In 1521, Copernicus presented to the states of his provinces his work on money ; and there are several manuscript treatises of his in the library of the bishopric of Warmia.
The Life of Copernicus has been treated of by the following authors : Gas- sendl (Paris, 1654); Sniadeski (Warsaw, 1803); Westphal (Constance, 1822): Percy (Paris, 1824); Czynski (Paris, 1846); Szyrma (Lond., 1846) ; Prowe (Thorn, 1852-55-CO-fi. 1 ;); Szulc (Warsaw, 1855); and Domcnico Berti, in Copernico e le Vicencle delSistema Copernicano in Italia (Rome, 1876). See Astronomy.
