drawn up for the faculty of arts at Paris in 1720, the Method and Meditations of Descartes were placed beside the Organon and the Metaphysics of Aristotle as text-books for philosophical study. And before 1725, readings, both public and private, were given from Cartesian texts in some of the Parisian colleges. But when this happened, Cartesianism was no longer either interesting or dangerous ; its theories, taught as ascertained and verified truths, were as worthless as the systematic verbiage which preceded them. Already antiquated, it could not resist the wit and raillery with which Voltaire, in his Lettres sur les Anglais (1728), brought against it the principles and results of Locke and Newton. The old Cartesians, Mairan and especially Fontenelle, with his Theorie des Tourlillons (1752), struggled in vain to refute Newton by styling attraction an occult quality. Fortunately, the Cartesian method had already done its service, even where the theories were rejected. The Port Royalists, Nicole and Arnauld, had applied it to grammar and logic ; Domat and Daguesseau to jurisprudence; Fontenelle, Perrault, and Terrasson to literary criticism, and a worthier estimate of modern literature. Though it never ceased to influence individual thinkers, it had handed on to Condillac its popu larity with the masses. A Latin abridgment of philosophy, dated 1784, tells us that the innate ideas of Descartes are founded on no arguments, and are now universally aban doned, The ghost of innate ideas seems to be all that it had left. In Germany a few Cartesian lecturers left their names at Leipsic and Halle, but the system took no root, any more than in Switzerland, where it had a brief reign at Geneva after 1669. In Italy the effects were more permanent. What is termed the iatro-mechanical school of medicine, with Borelli (1608-1679) as its most notable name, entered in a way on the mechanical study of anatomy suggested by Descartes, but was probably much more dependent upon the positive researches of Galileo. At Naples there grew up a Cartesian school, of which the best known mem bers are Michel Angelo Fardella (1650-1708) and Cardinal Gerdil (1718-1802), both of whom, however, attached themselves to the characteristic views of Malebranche. In England Cartesianism took but slight hold. Henry More, who had given it a modified sympathy in the life time of the author, became its opponent in later years ; and Cudworth differed from it in most essential points. Antony Legrand, from Douay, attempted to introduce it into Oxford, but failed. He is the author of several works, amongst others a system of Cartesian philosophy, where a chapter on " Angels " revives the methods of the schoolmen. His chief opponent was Samuel Parker, bishop of Oxford, who, in his attack on the irreligious novelties of the Cartesian treats Descartes (such is the irony of history) as a fellow criminal in infidelity with Hobbes and Gassendi. Rohault s version of the Cartesian physics was translated into English ; and Malebranche found an ardent follower in John Norris (1667-1711). Of Cartesianism towards the close of the 17th century the only remnants were an over grown theory of vortices, which received its death-blow from Newton, and a dubious phraseology anent innate ideas, which found a witty executioner in Locke. For an account of the metaphysical doctrines of Des cartes, in their connections with Malebrauche and Spinoza, see the article CARTESIANISM. The chief editions of the collected works of Descartes are the two Latin texts in 9 vols. 4to by Elzevir 1713, and in 7 vols. 4 to, Frankfort, 1697, and the French edition by Cousin in 11 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1824- 26. These include his so-called posthumous works, The Rides for the Direction of the Mind, The Search for Truth by the Sight of Nature, and other unimportant fragments, published (in Latin) in 1701. In 1859-60 Foucher de Careil published in two parts some unedited writings of Descartes from copies taken by Leibnitz from the original papers. An edition of the philosophical works in 4 vols. 8vo, edited by Gamier, appeared at Paris, 1835. There is a good English translation of the Method, Meditations, and a small part of the Principles, first published at Edinburgh, 1853. For the life of Descartes the chief authority is Baillet, Vie de Descartes, in 2 vols. 4to, 1691 ; of which a small abridgment, after wards translated into English, appeared in 1692. There is a sum mary of it in Garnier s edition, and in Kuno Fischer s Geschichte der Neuern Philosophic, Band i. Th. 1, Svo, Mannheim, 1865. See the Eloge of Thomas in Cousin s edition. For the philosophy of Descartes, see besides the works referred to under CARTESIAN ISM, Bordas-Demoulin, Le Cartesian isme, 2d ed. Par. 1874 ; Damiron, Ilistoire de la Philosophic du XVII. Siecle ; Renouvier, Manuel de Philosophic Moderne, Paris, 1842 ; Cousin, Fragments Philosophiqucs, vol. ii., Paris, 1838, Fragments de Philosophic Cartesienne, Paris, 1845, and in the Journal dcs Savants, 1860-61. A good estimate of the physical and mathematical labours is given in Ersch and Gruber s Encydopadie ; and Professor Huxley has lately, in the Fortnightly Review, vol. xvi., called atten tion to automatism. There are also several German works treating of his theology and metaphysics. (W. W. )
DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE, called MOEEL, a distin
guished mediaeval poet of France, was born at Vertus, in
Champagne, early in the 14th century. The date of his birth
has been approximately given as 1328, 1340, and 1345,
according to the interpretation put upon certain vague state
ments of his own. It is certain that he lived under four
kings Philip VI., John, Charles V., and Charles VI. He
studied the seven liberal arts at the university of Orleans.
Early in life he proceeded to the court of France, and, after
first entering the service of a prelate whose name he has
not recorded, for more than thirty years took an active
and prominent part in the joyous society of the day.
Charged with a succession of honourable offices, he served
nearly all the princes his contemporaries. His life was a
long and romantic series of tournaments, feasts, and
battles, and he was one of the most popular persons of
his time. But before settling down to this life, he had a
stormy youth of vicissitude. He was an eye-witness of
the English invasion in 1358; he was in the siege of
Ilheims, and witnessed the march on Chartres ; he was
present also at the signing of the treaty at Bretigny. In
1360, as Chatelain of Vertus, he became the vassal of the
young princess Isabella, to whom he paid great poetic
homage. But he was then already a travelled man ; he
had visited Italy, Germany, and Hungary. Later on he
took a part in the Flemish wars, and it was on this occasion
that, about 1385, he received the surname, 01 nickname,
of Morel, which he sometimes himself adopted in later life.
He is believed, but not on very strong evidence, to have
travelled in Syria and Egypt, and to have been captured
and imprisoned by the Saracens. In France he lived the
true life of a trouvere, wandering from castle to castle with
his poems. He had a violent hatred for the English
nation, fostered no doubt by the experiences of his youth ;
and this he has expressed very abundantly in his writings,
particularly in the famous prophecy that England would
be destroyed so thoroughly that no one should be able to
point to her ruins. He was huissier d armes to King
Charles V., and by him appointed bailli of Senlis and
governor of Fismes. It was with great reluctance that,
when he felt himself growing old, he retired from public
life and went into a modest seclusion, where he occupied
himself in the composition of a splenetic satire against
women, entitled Le Miroir de Mariage; though 12,500
lines of this exist, he left it unfinished at his death, which
took place about 1420. Eustache Deschamps was an
accomplished courtier, but he was extremely ugly ; he
disarms criticism by calling himself " Le Roi de Laidure."
His poems remained unprinted until our day, the great
fount of them being a manuscript in the Royal Library at
Paris, containing 1175 ballads, 171 rondeaux, 80 virelays,
14 lays, 28 farces, and various epistles and satires. This
bulk of MSS. was edited and published in 4to by M. G. A.
