the disposal of their pupils. Very often their teaching took the form of reading and explaining the few books that were at that time available. In the old schools and universities the teachers and professors used to lecture on the writings of their predecessors. Thus the writings of men like Plato and Aristotle were read, explained and criticized in such a way as to bring out their full meaning. They were treated, in fact, pretty much as a modern clergyman deals with a text from the Scriptures. The text-book was thus the basis of the lecture, it was the authority, and the teacher took the subordinate position of a mere expounder of what another man had written. Often, no doubt, the comments of the teacher were of more value than the text on which he commented. This became increasingly common in connexion with subjects of a scientific character. Fresh discoveries were made, and mistakes were found in the text. These mistakes the teacher, of course, pointed out, in order that his hearers should know the truth. But such corrections had to be most carefully made, for those old people were very jealous for the honour of their established authorities. Aristotle, for example, became for centuries the recognized authority in a great many subjects. What he said was regarded as final on any subject on which he had written, and hearers would not listen to anything opposed to him. Commentators, if they wanted to make any corrections, had to endeavour to show that the new things they wished to bring forward
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