NEW BOOKS. 275 over logical interest in reasoning'. The subject is one of great import- ance for psychology. The logician merely brings down a particular fallacy and displays it alongside of the other offenders of its species ; to the psychologist is left the natural history of the sophism. Moreover the actual confusion of thought which would lead any one to advance a fallacy as a logical proof is not of primary interest and is indeed not discussed by M. Bibot. He describes rather what Mill called the moral causes of error in reasoning ; to be more accurate, it is the influence which leads us to adopt a particular conclusion quite apart from any interest we may have in its logical ,validity. The phenomena discussed, though not grouped according to any very satisfactory prin- ciple, are in themselves interesting. Thus we find an account of the effect which a state of passion, e.g. fear, produces on the process of inference ; the phenomena of conversion and of the transformation of emotions are also described, together with the habit of justifying, on apparently logical grounds, a belief held really on account of the emotional satisfaction it affords. M. Eibot talks of emotional reasoning as effecting itself by means of a series of judgments of value ; ' values ' are the middle terms of the logic of the emotions. But to compare these to a series of middle terms in syllogistic reasoning is only confusing ; the ' judgment of value ' must rather function as a single axiom over-riding all others and allowing us to draw conclusions agreeing with it alone. The final problem, as to why certain beliefs should cause a specific emotional satisfaction, M. Bibot does not discuss. He includes a chapter dealing with a subject which, as is admitted, has little to do with reasoning, namely the productive imagination. Here it is claimed that the imaginative creation of emotional states is possible, that it forms the basis of musical composition and is the essence of mystical religion. G. B. T. Boss. Die Aufgaben des Mittelschullehrers. Von Prof. Dr. WILHELM JERU- SALEM. Vienna and Leipzig : Wilhelm Braumiiller, 1903. Pp. 64. Dr. Jerusalem has already written several books on Psychology and Pedagogy. In this pamphlet he gives the mature thoughts of a cultured and experienced teacher on the work and function of the Secondary School. The Mittelschule of Austria holds a position similar to the Gymnasium in Germany, and the best type of Secondary School in this country. As its name implies it comes in the educational system between the Elementary School and the University, and naturally leads up to the latter. In this class of schools the teacher must be a highly educated man, and his task is here considered from three points of view (1) the scientific ; (2) the pedagogic-didactic ; (3) the social. I. Dr. Jerusalem shows under the first how in every branch of study the scope is extending. It is the duty of the teacher to keep himself by continuous study abreast of progress in his own and cognate depart- ments, but it is impossible with the time at his disposal to do original work and be a producer. Scientific work has a receptive and a pro- ductive side. Original investigation is the sphere of the University Professor, but for the teacher of the Middle School the receptive side of scientific work is more important than the productive. II. Every subject of instruction has its own independent didactic task. And every type of school has its special function. The elementary school equips all its pupils with such a minimum as will make them
