are attracted by intensive colors and sounds and by manifestations of physical force. As early as the Homeric period, the æsthetic and moral ideal of beauty as identical with greatness of stature is modified by the added requirement of harmony and proportion. The ideal continued to grow by the incorporation of psychological elements,—courage, prudence, cunning, strength of mind, patience, and moderation. The external elements retained their value, and therefore great importance still attached to another element of the external order, namely, power, which originates from a union of strength, courage, and prudence. The apotheosis of power in the caste system was in some respects favorable to the development of morality, for, through the sacerdotal caste, the æsthetico-moral ideal was gradually stripped of its external attributes, and there arose the new virtues of self-denial, humility, continence, and knowledge. This was in one respect a real advance; in another respect it was a deviation, accentuating by glorification the purely contemplative life, and by practice the most rigorous and excessive asceticism. The apotheosis of power did not appear among the Greeks because of their emphasis on measure and proportion, which ended in the conception of moral beauty as harmony. But from Socrates and Plato on, the moral ideal became more internal; there was a deviation towards the contemplative life which ended in the ecstasy of the Alexandrian School. Religion, the influence of which on morality has been greatly exaggerated, is the expression of the moral state of a people at a given time. In virtue of their traditional character, religions often are an obstacle to moral progress, and, on the other hand, are often a useful barrier against rash innovations. Through the teachings of the church there arose a glorification of the good will, a deviation from the æsthetico-moral ideal more or less dangerous than aceticism or mysticism. (III) Like the evolution of the æsthetic element, to which it is subordinated, the evolution of the rational element was a gradual and extremely slow process. The idea of justice grew out of the admiration accorded to an individual in proportion to his prowess. Once established in its rudimentary form, it would be first applied in expeditions against dangerous animals or tribal enemies to govern the distribution of booty, each person receiving in proportion to his strength and courage. Thus the idea of justice from the first implies proportionality, and this proportionality was controlled by the æsthetic elements already noticed, each new element as it appeared being taken account of in the division of spoil. With the growing realization of the equality of persons, the principle of proportionality was transformed into one of equality of rights. (IV) Unlike the rational element, the evolution of which has followed step by step that of the æsthetic element, the altruistic element has had its own development, not, however, without influencing and being influenced by the æsthetico-moral ideal. The most common and important cause of altruism is the attachment of men and animals to familiar objects and places, and to the beings among whom they are accustomed to live. The banding together of primitive men would
