good at all, base it upon reason. Under all the apparent diversity there is thus a profound unity. Now, "the good is not the consequence of an act, but a quality of action; nay, not of action, but of will; the good is a good will." This is the cry of the universal conscience; and not only so, but there is equal agreement on this principle, that in reason, in the notion of a good natural man, there are revealed the forms of the good prudence, temperance, courage, justice, charity, love, and reverence. Erroneous as are their applications, there is a wonderful unity in the principles themselves. The idea of the good is thus inherent in the mind of man, and irreducible to any other idea. With this idea, which belongs to reason, is combined the feeling of the good, which belongs to sensibility; the combination of both is the moral consciousness or "conscience."
This general intuitionist theory of ethics is further developed in the next essay on " Spiritualist Ethics," in which the author, while expressing his general agreement with M. Janet, makes one or two criticisms of special points. Thus he thinks that a denial of the distinction of duties as of "perfect" and "imperfect" obligation leads not only to too austere a conception of conduct, but seems to involve a certain degree of error (p. 70). Must we not distinguish between evil and the absence of good? Is it not one thing to do evil, and another thing not to do good? If we adopt this distinction we can hardly fail to reject the equalization of duties of "perfect" and "imperfect" obligation. The rest of the article consists in a defense against M. Fouillée's strictures of the freedom of will, the absoluteness of duty, and an absolute good.
In the next paper M. Alaux shows, in an interesting and suggestive way, that we cannot separate the form of literature from its content; that, while the direct object of literature, as of all art, is beauty, truth and morality must form its substance. Hence it is ideal, and the realist, who supposes that art is but an imitation of nature, fails to see that a combination of rhythmical sounds is not a representation of anything, but derives its power from the images, the emotions, and ideas which it calls forth. Beauty is the realization of an idea in an image, which is a sign or symbol of the idea. "The sense of the beautiful, the poetic sense, consists in reading, so to speak, the divine idea in the human soul, and the human soul in the human body, in the bodies of the world which surrounds us, in sensible forms, in nature" (p. 112).
Applying this principle the author passes in review the various forms of French literature, not forgetting to note the foreign influences which have so powerfully modified it. Our space will not allow us to follow him in his discussion of such questions as international rights, the function of the state in economic problems, divorce, the freedom of the press, the constitution of the French Republic, and the idea of a true democracy; but perhaps enough has been said to indicate that the reader may always be sure of finding in M. Alaux's pages a calm and thoughtful discussion of the important questions with which he deals.
John Watson.
