botany, a knowledge of which may appear to the student as having little connection with geology."
During the later half of the third period, greater progress was made, and before its close geology was thoroughly established as a science. Let us consider for a moment what had really been accomplished up to this time.
It had now been proved beyond question that portions at least of the earth's surface had been covered many times by the sea, with alternations of fresh water and of land; that the strata thus deposited were formed in succession, the lowest of the series being the oldest; that a distinct succession of animals and plants had inhabited the earth during the different geological periods; and that the order of succession found in one part of the earth was essentially the same in all. More than 30,000 new species of extinct animals and plants had now been described. It had been found, too, that from the oldest formations to the most recent, there had been an advance in the grade of life, both animal and vegetable, the oldest forms being among the simplest, and the higher forms successively making their appearance.
It had now become clearly evident, moreover, that the fossils from the older formations were all extinct species, and that only in the most recent deposits were there remains of forms still living. The equally important fact had been established that in several groups of both animals and plants the extinct forms were vastly more numerous than the living, while several orders of fossil animals had no representatives in modern times. Human remains had been found mingled with those of extinct animals, but the association was regarded as an accidental one by the authorities in science; and the very recent appearance of man on the earth was not seriously questioned. Another important conclusion reached, mainly through the labors of Lyell, was, that the earth had not been subjected in the past to sudden and violent revolutions; but the great changes wrought had been gradual, differing in no essential respect from those still in progress. Strangely enough, the corollary to this proposition, that life, too, had been continuous on the earth, formed at that date no part of the common stock of knowledge.
In the physical world the great law of "correlation of forces" had been announced and widely accepted; but, in the organic world, the dogma of the miraculous creation of each separate species still held sway, almost as completely as when Linnæus declared, "There are as many different species as there were different forms created in the beginning by the Infinite Being." But the dawn of a new era was already breaking, and the third period of paleontology we may consider now at an end.
Just twenty years ago, science had reached a point when the belief in "special creations" was undermined by well-established facts, slowly
