the extremities. The emotions, too, left a record. When only a student came into the room, little or no effect appeared in the curve; but, when Professor Ludwig himself came in, the arteries in the arm of the person in the apparatus contracted quite as strongly as upon a very decided electrical stimulation.
In an address of the retiring President of this Association, delivered but a few years ago, I find this sentence: "Thought can not be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure." In the light of the rapid advances lately made in investigating mental action, we see that in two directions at least, in its rate of action and of its relative energy, we may already measure thought, as we measure any other form of energy, by the effects it produces.
Passing now to the consideration of the general question of the transformation of energy which is effected by living beings, attention may be called to one or two points in general physics, as bearing upon its solution. The great law of the dissipation of energy, as modified by Thomson from the statement of Clausius, is thus stated: "The entropy of the universe tends to zero." In other words, the energy of the universe available for transmutation is approaching extinction. This conclusion is based upon the fact that while every form of energy can be completely converted into heat, heat can not be completely converted into other forms of energy, nor these into each other. Hence it arises that energy is being gradually dissipated as heat. Moreover, since transformation can only result when heat passes from a higher to a lower temperature, it follows that, when that perfect equilibrium of temperature is reached toward which events are tending, there can be no other energy than heat, and this absolutely inconvertible, irrecoverable. To apply this law to the present case, the muscle, for example, is a machine for transforming the energy of food into work. Since, consequently, this conversion is not complete, it follows that heat must appear as a necessary result of muscular action. The heat of animal life, consequently, is not heat especially provided; it is simply the heat which inevitably results from an incomplete conversion of energy.
Again, the form of chemical action thus far assumed by physiologists to account for the energy of the living animal has been combustion. But the science of thermo-chemistry, as developed in late years by Berthelot and Thomson, has proved that direct union of chemical substances may not only not evolve heat, but may actually absorb it. It appears, too, that thermal changes accompany all forms of chemical change, those of decomposition and exchange as well as those of synthesis. The animal absorbs highly complex substances as food, capable of innumerable stages of retrogressive metamorphosis before elimination. In each of these stages heat is evolved, being the energy successively stored up by the plant when it repeated these stages in the inverse order.
