grains until reduced to small pills of gluten, and then swallowing these. Mild indigestion or acute spasms will follow, according to the quantity taken and the digestive energies of the experimenter. Raw flour will act similarly but less decidedly.
Bread-making is the most important, as well as a typical example, of the cookery of grain-food. The grinding of the grain is the first process of such cookery; it vastly increases the area exposed to the subsequent actions.
The next stage is that of surrounding each grain of the flour with a thin film of water. This is done in making the dough by careful admixture of a modicum of water and kneading in order to squeeze the water well between all the particles. The effect of insufficient enveloping in water is sometimes seen in a loaf containing a white powdery kernel of unmixed flour.
If nothing more than this were done, and such simple dough were baked, the starch-granules would be duly broken up and hydrated, the gluten also hydrated, but, at the same time, the particles of flour would be so cemented together as to form a mass so hard and tough when baked that no ordinary human teeth could crush it. Among all our modern triumphs of applied science none can be named that is more refined and elegant than the old device by which this difficulty is overcome in the every-day business of making bread. Who invented it, and when, I do not know, but perhaps Mr. Clodd can tell us. Its discovery was certainly very far anterior to any knowledge of the chemical principles involved in its application.
The problem has a very difficult aspect. Here are millions of particles, each of which has to be moistened on its surface, but each when thus moistened becomes remarkably adhesive, and therefore sticks fast to all its surrounding neighbors. We require, without suppressing this adhesiveness, to interpose a barrier that shall sunder these millions of particles from each other so delicately as neither to separate them completely, nor allow them to completely adhere.
It is evident that if the operation that supplies each particle with its film of moisture can simultaneously supply it with a partial atmosphere of gaseous matter, the difficult and delicate problem will be effectively solved. It is thus solved in making bread.
As already explained, the seed which is broken up into flour contains diastase as well as starch, and this diastase, when aided by moisture and moderate warmth, converts the starch into dextrine and sugar. This action commences when the dough is made, and this alone would only increase the adhesiveness of the mass, if it went no further; but the sugar thus produced may, by the aid of a suitable ferment, be converted into alcohol. As the composition of alcohol corresponds to that of sugar, minus carbonic acid, the evolution of carbonic-acid gas is an essential part of this conversion.
With these facts before us, their practical application in bread-
