in the same markets. In order to counterbalance the advantages which some manufacturers engaged in a given industry enjoyed through the possession of cheaper raw material, labor, prestige, or favorable situation, their competitors of foreign—and even of the same nationality—were compelled to look to improved methods of manufacture or production in order to hold their ground, and were thus brought to realize that educated labor and technical skill were the soundest elements with which to defend themselves in trade competition, in that they promote excellence of execution, inventiveness, enterprise, and all the qualities required to successfully conduct progressive industries. Under this pressure producers and manufacturers, through their guilds and other associations, were soon able to exert an influence upon their governments which has resulted in every European nation's making greater or less provision for public industrial education; until at this time not only England, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Holland, and Italy, but all the minor Continental states, have their governmental schools for both elementary and higher technical instruction." Russia also has established Imperial Technical Institutes at St. Petersburg and Moscow, which are classed as among the finest in Europe, and the action of the Government has been supplemented by schools established by the leading railroads at their principal works. "While the technical schools and departments in France are excellent of their kind, it is in Germany and Switzerland that the movement for industrial education has attained its highest development. In the latter country, the British Royal Commissioners found the value of its technical schools distinctly illustrated in the marked improvement of manufactures; in the elevation of the producing classes; in the diminution of crime; in the popularization of education; and, generally, exercising a most important influence upon the nation's industries and welfare. In summarizing the results of their investigations in Germany, they remark that the conviction is universal among the German people that they can only meet the competition of their rivals in other countries by training their workmen in taste and skill, and that the prosperity of their industries will increase only in proportion as they keep up the efficiency of their schools and spread their influence among the workers themselves. The direct and indirect effects of technological schools upon the industries of their respective countries were, immediately upon their establishment, felt to be beneficial in the highest degree. Their graduates were eagerly sought out to fill important and responsible positions in manufacturing and commercial establishments, many of which had sustained serious losses through the ignorance and consequent bad management of administrative officers; and this inquiry soon far exceeded the supply. As the result of this appreciation of, and demand for, skilled laborers and supervisors, many enterprising corporations, and even private firms, engaged in manufacturing and other industries depend-
