this term are determined chiefly through some form of mental action, and afford striking illustrations of the influence of the mind upon the body. This view of Liébault's is of great significance, for it is the point of departure of the supporters of the Nancy school of hypnotism, who hold that an enormous number of hypnotic manifestations can only be explained through suggestion. Liébault was an extremely conscientious and able observer. He had the courage of his convictions, and, scorned by his colleagues, lived in retirement, practicing among the poorer classes, and devoting his life to the study of the problems of hypnotism. The originality of Liébault's book, and the stimulus it gave to investigation, entitle it to be considered the most important work upon hypnotism which has appeared since the time of Braid.
In sharp contrast to the views held by Liébault and his pupils (Nancy school) stand those of Charcot and his school (school of Salpêtrière or Paris school). Charcot began the study of hypnotism in 1878, and his observations were almost exclusively made upon hysterical patients. His method of inducing sleep is similar to that of Braid. The patient gazes intently upon a brilliant object, and after a variable period falls suddenly asleep. Charcot regards hypnotism as an abnormal nervous state—a neurosis, in fact, of which there are three phases, each possessing certain well defined characteristics. . The patient may be brought from one of these stages into another at will, by means of certain skillfully performed manœuvres. The three states are known as lethargy, catalepsy, and somnambulism.
The lethargic state may be obtained either by fixation of a brilliant object, or by pressing upon the closed eyelids. The condition is characterized by the presence of deep sleep, muscular relaxation, loss of sensation, partial or complete, abeyance of the intellectual functions, and the absence of all reaction to suggestion. A curious hyperexcitable condition of the nerves and muscles (neuro-muscular hyperexcitability) is, however, present, which causes any muscle to contract when its corresponding nerve is excited by friction or slight pressure. Thus, pressure upon the facial nerve (the great motor nerve of the face) causes distortion of the features on the same side of the face.
The second stage is that of catalepsy. It is only necessary to raise the eyelids in order to transform the lethargic condition into that of catalepsy. If only one eyelid be raised, the corresponding side of the body becomes cataleptic, while the other side continues lethargic. The peculiar hyperexcitability of the nerves and muscles is absent in this stage, and the patient remains for some time in any position into which he may be put. In this stage suggestions may act through the sensibility of the muscles as a medium. Thus, if the hands are joined as in prayer, the face grows very
