other lines belonging in the same series may be calculated. In this way the positions of certain lines for certain elements were foretold. Search failed to reveal all of them in light emitted by the element at any temperature producible in the laboratory. But some of the missing lines have been found in the spectra of the hottest stars, stars far hotter than our sun. At the same time many of the lines obtained by terrestrial means are lacking in the spectra of these stars. We have ample experimental evidence that many complex substances dissociate, as we call it, into less complex substances within the temperature range readily controlled in the laboratory. The inference is right at hand that at extreme, at stellar, temperatures our elements themselves are dissociated into simpler substances. To these substances, our elements, in this other condition, have been given their customary names, but with the prefix proto. Thanks to the introduction of Rowland's diffraction gratings for the study of these spectra, we have observations indicating the existence of proto hydrogen, proto calcium, proto magnesium, proto iron and so on through a list of a dozen or more 'proto' elements.[1]
Continuation of the work upon which Crookes was engaged resulted in the discovery of the X-rays by Röntgen in 1895. This date may be said to mark a new era in many of our conceptions regarding the universe about us. To J. J. Thomson, professor of physics at Cambridge, England, we owe the greater part of our present knowledge of the cathode rays. He devised most of the experiments and the ingenious, but strictly logical, reasoning which justify us in supposing that these cathode rays consist of swarms of minute particles, which he called corpuscles (reviving an old term and an old theory of Isaac Xewton's); particles moving with velocities approaching that of light, each one carrying a charge of what we call negative electricity. He, and those working with him, determined the quantity of this electrical charge to be the same on each corpuscle, and to be the same as the charge we have good reason to suppose is carried by any monovalent ion in solution. By several methods the approximate number of these particles in a given volume and the weight of the individual particle were estimated. This weight appears to be about one eight-hundredth of the weight generally ascribed to the hydrogen atom, the lightest of all the atoms. It may be objected that there is no positive proof of the existence of these corpuscles, nor do we know the weight or mass of one of them. That is very true, but neither have we positive proof of the existence of atoms, nor do we know the weight of one atom. ^Ye can only say that the evidence makes the existence of these minute individuals, atoms and corpuscles extremely plausible, and makes one as plausible as the other.
- ↑ The methods, facts and reasonings relating to this spectroscopic evidence are interestingly given in 'Inorganic Evolution' by Sir Norman Lockyer.
