feature characteristic of only the more specialized parts of the vertebrate central organs and entirely absent from the invertebrate, but whether this difference really exists or not must remain for future investigation.
Although it can not be said at present that a synaptic nervous system is the peculiar possession of the vertebrates, there are two important features in which the central organs of these animals differ from those of the invertebrates. In the first place, the central organs of vertebrates exhibit a large prepondernace of long neurones over short ones, and in the second place, they show an enormous increase in the number of association neurones. In an earthworm there are only three long neurones and the rest are short ones; in a crab the long and short neurones are perhaps about equally abundant; but in a vertebrate the long neurones certainly far outnumber the short ones. In any transverse section of the spinal cord of one of the higher animals almost all of the white substance in view excepting a thin layer surrounding the ventral horn is made up of systems of long neurones. In this respect the condition in the vertebrates seems to be almost the reverse of that in worms and in consequence transection of their central nervous organs results in profound and extensive degeneration such as is never met with in animals like worms. For this reason the central nervous system of the vertebrate, though giving much evidence of segmentation in its early stages of growth, is finally a physiological unit such as is realized in no other group of animals, a condition well evidenced by the fact that some of its most recent phylogenetic acquisitions, like the pyramidal tracts of the mammals, may consist of neurones that reach almost from one end of the system to the other.
The second feature that distinguishes the central nervous organs of vertebrates from those of invertebrates is the enormous development of association neurones. These neurones are present in worms, are numerous in arthropods, but are overwhelmingly abundant in vertebrates. Of the white substance seen in the transverse section of the spinal cord almost all except the dorsal columns represent association neurones. Judged from this standpoint there are certainly many more association neurones in the cord than all other kinds taken together. But the association neurones are not only the most numerous in the vertebrates; they also constitute the basis of the most significant evolution. The central nervous organs that show the most conspicuous progressive changes in the vertebrates are the cerebellum and the cerebrum, particularly their cortical portions, and when it is remembered that few or no primary sensory or motor neurones contribute to these two organs, but that they are made up of association neurones almost exclusively, it will be seen how enormously important these neurones become. The association neurones in the vertebrates are not only the organs of intricate nervous exchange, but in the region of the cerebral cortex they
