cerned, the state met with in the muscles of the sponges. These examples then show that even in the higher animals certain muscles respond normally to direct stimulation and thus exhibit a form of activity which is believed to be generally characteristic of sponges.
In my opinion the simultaneous origin of nerve and muscle can no longer be maintained. Muscle arose first and the simple effectors thus produced were the first element of the neuromuscular mechanism. These effectors were directly stimulated and consequently slow in action. They afforded centers around which nervous tissue first differentiated in the form of sense organs or receptors whose function it was to serve as triggers to initiate muscle action quickly. As these receptors became more highly developed, a third element, the central nervous organ, arose from the nervous elements between the receptor and the effector. This organ, the adjuster, served as a means of conducting and modifying the sensory impulses on their way from the receptor to the effector and ultimately it also served as a storehouse for the nervous experience of the individual and as the seat of its intellectual life. It is interesting to observe that this view of the origin of the nervous system is in accord with the philosophical speculations of Bergson according to whom the nervous system has been evolved primarily as an organ for animal response and only secondarily as one concerned with intellectual activities.
But if we picture the nervous system as having arisen as an appendage to the musculature and as having grown in complication as the musculature became differentiated, we are still far from an adequate view of even the more obvious aspects of its evolution. The nervous system controls many more kinds of effectors than muscle and its sensory elements are vastly more complex than is implied in the preceding sketch. To gain a more comprehensive view of the evolution of these organs, it is necessary to consider a subsidiary but important process, the appropriation of effectors and receptors.
The nervous system of many of the higher animals not only acts upon the musculature; it may also control electric organs, luminous organs, chromatophores, glands, etc. Not all such organs are under the influence of the nervous system, but it is not difficult to find for each group of effectors animals in which the given type of organs is under the influence of nerves. The electric organs and the chromatophores of fishes, are of this kind as well as the salivary glands of the mammals and the luminous organs of the brittle stars.
How has the nervous system gained control over these organs? Except the electric organs, which are probably modified muscle, all these organs have arisen in my opinion as independent effectors. Most of them can be identified as such in one group of animals or another. Thus among the glands the pancreas in the higher vertebrates has been
