merely as figures of speech, but when interpreted literally, as they frequently are, they are altogether misleading; they are the result of reasoning about names rather than facts, of getting far from phenomena and philosophizing about them. The comparison of heredity to the transmission of property from parents to children has produced confusion in the scientific as well as in the popular mind. It is only necessary to recall the most elementary facts about development to recognize that in a literal sense parental characteristics are never transmitted to children.
2. The Transmission Hypothesis
And yet the idea that the characteristics of adult persons are transmitted from one generation to the next is a very ancient one and was universally held until the most recent times. Before the details of development were known it was natural to suppose, as Hippocrates did, that white-flowered plants gave rise to white-flowered seeds and that blue-eyed parents produced blue-eyed germs, without attempting to define what was meant by white-flowered seed or blue-eyed germs. And even after the facts of development were fairly well known it was generally held that the germ cells were produced by the adult animal or plant and that the characteristics of the adult were in some way carried over to the germ cells; but the manner in which this supposed transmission took place remained undefined until Darwin attempted to explain it by his "provisional hypothesis of pangenesis." Darwin assumed that minute particles or "gemmules" were given off by every cell of the body, at every stage of development, and that these gemmules then collected in the germ cells which thus became storehouses of little germs from all parts of the body. Afterwards, in the development of these germ cells, the gemmules, or little germs, developed into cells and organs similar to those from which they came.
3. Germinal Continuity and Somatic Discontinuity
Many ingenious hypotheses have been devised to explain things which are not true, and this is one of them. The doctrine that adult organisms manufacture germ cells and transmit their characters to them is known to be erroneous. Neither germ cells nor any other kind of cells are formed by the body as a whole, but every cell in the body comes from a preceding cell by a process of division, and germ cells are formed, not by contributions from all parts of the body, but by division of preceding cells which are derived ultimately from the fertilized egg (Fig. 23). The hen does not produce the egg, but the egg produces the hen and also other eggs. Individual traits are not transmitted from the hen to the egg, but they develop out of germinal factors which are carried along from cell to cell, and thus from generation to generation.
There is a continuity of germinal substance, and usually of germinal cells, from one generation to the next. In some animals the germ cells are set apart at a very early stage of development, sometimes in
