they did in the old days. The soldiers in the present war will suffer from the cold; the icy roads will make it difficult for horses to keep their footing; the snow will block roads and delay marching and transportation, just as has happened in the wars of the past under similar weather conditions. Modern methods of transportation are so well-organized that winter storms and cold do not interfere as much as was formerly the case, yet the movements. of the heavy guns, the automobiles and the motor trucks of the present-day army are likely to be blocked by deep snows at least as effectively as was once the case when horses were exclusively used.
From Galicia, with its high ground and its exposure northwards, towards the great Russian lowland, came, in mid-September, the first mention of the suffering of troops from the cold. Early in October we read that the soldiers there were marching and camping in the snow. The Russians, well protected by their heavy overcoats, suffered little discomfort, but the Austrians whose winter clothing had been captured by the Russians in Lemberg were less fortunate. Whatever may have been the other reasons for the Russian advance into Austrian Poland, it is clear that this southern route into Austrian and perhaps later into German territory would naturally give the longest open season for the prosecution of the campaign. In the northeast, the Germans seem to have been surprised by the setting in of cold weather in the first half of October, and, not having heavy clothing, they are reported to have suffered severely. The Russians, on the other hand, were well protected, having fur caps covering both their heads and necks and being otherwise well equipped with requisites for a fall and winter campaign. It is not unlikely that the Germans, even if they were distinctly victorious in this zone, would think of penetrating far into Russia, to face, as did Napoleon, the might of Generals January and February. Heavy rains and sleet made speedy movements of troops difficult in early October. Toward the latter part of October snow was interfering with the offensive of the Russian army in Poland, because delaying the movement of their transport. The German and Austrian troops, therefore, retreated less rapidly, and made a more determined resistance. They were, however, themselves greatly hampered by a breakdown of their own supply trains. It is probable that the German activity against Russia in the east has been at least in part due to the desire to gain a distinct advantage before the setting in of the rigorous Russian winter. The capture of Warsaw before winter would have greatly strengthened the German line in East Prussia, would have endangered the Russian frontier in Galicia and would have had a distinct moral effect on the Poles. Further, if a large body of German troops could then be transferred to France, a new campaign against Paris might perhaps be attempted during the milder French winter. The Russians are more ac-
