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in A.D. 1900 as 23° 17′ 08″.03. The various year-lengths for A.D. 1900, as calculated by present standard authorities, are as follows:

	d.	h.	m.	s.
Mean Sidereal solar year	365	6	9	9.29
Do. AnomalisticTropical yeardo.	365	5	48	45.37
Do. Anomalistic yeardo.	365	6	13	48.61

16. Kalpa. Mahâyuga. Yuga. Julian Period. A kalpa is the greatest Indian division of time. It consists of 1000 mahâyugas. A mahâyuga is composed of four yugas of different lengths, named Kṛita, Tretâ, Dvâpara, and Kali. The Kali-yuga consists of 432,000 solar years. The Dvâpara yuga is double the length of the Kali. The Tretâ-yuga is triple, and the Kṛita-yuga quadruple of the Kali. A mahâyuga therefore contains ten times the years of a Kali-yuga, viz., 4,320,000. According to Indian tradition a kalpa is one day of Brahman, the god of creation. The Kaliyuga is current at present; and from the beginning of the present kalpa up to the beginning of the present Kali-yuga 4567 times the years of a Kali-yuga have passed. The present Kaliyuga commenced, according to the Sûrya Siddhânta, an authoritative Sanskrit work on Hindu astronomy, at midnight on a Thursday corresponding to 17th—18th February, 3102 B. C., old style; by others it is calculated to have commenced on the following sunrise, viz., Friday, 18th February. According to the Sûrya and some other Siddhântas both the sun and moon were, with reference to their mean longitude, precisely on the beginning point of the zodiacal sign Aries, the Hindu sign Mesha, when the Kali-yuga began.

European chronologists often use for purposes of comparison the 'Julian Period' of 7980 years, beginning Tuesday 1st January, 4713 B. C. The 18th February, 3102 B. C., coincided with the 588,466th day of the Julian Period.

17. Siddhanta year-measurement. The length of the year according to different Hindu authorities is as follows:

Siddhântas.	Hindu reckoning.					European reckoning.
	days.	gh.	pa.	vipa.	pra. vi.	days.	h.	mins.	sec.
The Vedâṅga Jyotisha	366	0	0	0	0	366	0	0	0
The Paitâmaha Siddhânta[1]	365	21	25	0	0	365	8	34	0
The Romaka Siddhanta„	365	14	48	0	0	365	5	55	12
The Pauliśa[2] Siddhanta„	365	15	30	0	0	365	6	12	0
The original Sûrya Siddhânta	365	15	31	30	0	365	6	12	36
The Present Sûrya, Vâsishṭha, Śâkalya-Brahma, Romaka, & Soma Siddhântas	365	15	31	31	24	365	6	12	36.56
The first Ârya Siddhânta[3] (A. D. 499)	365	15	31	15	0	365	6	12	30
The Brahma Siddhânta by Brahma-gupta (A. D. 628)	365	15	30	22	30	365	6	12	9
The second Ârya Siddhânta	365	15	31	17	6	365	6	12	30.84
The Parâśara Siddhânta[4]	365	15	31	18	30	365	6	12	31.6
Râjamṛigâṅka[5] Siddhanta„ (A. D. 1042)	365	15	31	17	17.3	365	6	12	30.915

1. Generally speaking an astronomical Sanskrit work, called a Siddhânta, treats of the subject theoretically. A practical work on astronomy based on a Siddhânta is called in Sanskrit a Karaṇa. The Paitâmaha and following three Siddhântas are not now extant, but are alluded to and described in the Pañchasiddhântikâ, a Karaṇa by Varâhamihira, composed in or about the Saka year 427 (A. D. 505). [S. B. D.]
2. Two other Pauliśa Siddhântas were known to Ulpala (A.D. 966), a well-known commentator of Varâhamihira. The length of the year in them was the same as that in the original Sûrya Siddhânta. [S. B. D.]
3. The duration of the year by the First Arya-Siddhânta is noted in the interesting chronogram mukhyaḥ
   5 1 kâlomayamâtulaḥ
   1 3 5 1 5 6 3. These figures are to be read from right to left; thus—365, 15, 31, 15 in Hindu notation of days, ghaṭikâs, etc. (I obtained this from Dr Burgess—R. S.)
4. The Parâśara Siddhânta is not now eitant. It is described in the second Ârya Siddhânta. The date of this latter is not given, but in my opinion it is about A.D. 950. [S. B. D.]
5. The Râjamṛigâṅka is a Karaṇa by King Bhoja. It is dated in the Śaka year 964 expired, A.D. 1012. [S. B. D.]